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budget crisis

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1 budget crisis
1. бюджетный кризис
бюджетный кризис
Ситуация, когда резко обостряется дефицит бюджета, и государство теряет возможность выполнения своих обязательств – прежде всего социальных обязательств. Возникает опасность социального взрыва. Яркий пример – бюджетный кризис в России 1965-66 гг. Начиная с 1992 г., уровень государственных доходов, при некоторых колебаниях, снижался постепенно. Однако в 1996 г. падение доходов стало обвальным. Помимо роста недоимок, этому способствовал также рост масштабов противозаконного уклонения от налогов (См. Оливера-Танзи эффект) самыми разными способами и, что очень важно, за счет «черного нала» то есть «путем осуществления хозяйственных операций наличными деньгами, не отражаемыми в бухгалтерской отчетности». Из-за широкого распространения взаимных неплатежей существенно снизилась облагаемая база налога на прибыль и НДС. В первой половине 1996 г. объем дебиторской задолженности почти утроился. Нарастал процесс бартеризации экономики (см. Бартер), быстрого распространения многоходовых схем безденежного взаимозачета долгов между поставщиками и их клиентами. Минфин использовал для налоговых освобождений товарный кредит и другие формы бартера. В результате таких операций многие предприятия могли вести свое хозяйство при минимальных объемах денежных средств. Порой у них на расчетных счетах просто не оказывалось средств на выплату налогов, и это дополнительно приводило к росту недоимок в бюджет. При осуществлении зачетов между налогоплательщиками, бюджетом и получателями бюджетных средств, так же как и при бартерных сделках, обычно использовались заниженные нерыночные цены, а значит, снижалась налоговая база. Для преодоления бюджетного кризиса правительство было вынуждено брать деньги в долг, в огромных масштабах размещая ГКО (см. Государственные краткосрочные обязательства). В 1998 году это отозвалось известным экономическим кризисом, потрясшим страну. Не только Россия, но все страны переходной экономики переживали бюджетный кризис (некоторые — не однажды). На ранних этапах постсоциалистического перехода бюджетные (то же: фискальные) кризисы создавали серьезные угрозы самому существованию новых социальных институтов. Динамика постсоциалистического бюджетного кризиса хорошо изучена, прежде всего, на материалах Восточной Европы. Польский экономист М. Домбровский выделяет четыре его этапа: –– фискальная дестабилизация, предшествующая началу реформ; –– макроэкономическая стабилизация, связанная с либерализацией экономики; –– вторичный фискальный кризис, следующий за стабилизацией; –– восстановление фискального потенциала, связанное с экономическим оживлением и развертыванием реформ в системе государственных финансов. ( См. О природе бюджетных кризисов этапа финансовой стабилизации // Е.Гайдар, Собр. соч. т. 6 с. 322) Для преодоления бюджетного кризиса ключевым вопросом становится способность правительства проводить необходимые реформы — реформу социальных фондов и системы социальной поддержки, реформу межбюджетных отношений и налоговой системы. Без этого бюджетный кризис преодолеть невозможно.
[ http://slovar-lopatnikov.ru/]

Тематики
- экономика
EN
- budget crisis
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > budget crisis
2 budget crisis

Финансы: бюджетный кризис (англ. термин взят из статьи в газете Los Angeles Times)

Универсальный англо-русский словарь > budget crisis
3 budget crisis

бюджетный кризис

Politics english-russian dictionary > budget crisis
4 crisis

n (pl crises)

кризис

to aggravate a crisis — обострять / усугублять кризис

to alleviate crisis — ослаблять кризис

to avert a crisis — предотвращать кризис

to be absorbed in the domestic crisis — быть поглощенным своим внутренним кризисом

to be gripped by / to be in the midst of / to be locked in a crisis — быть охваченным кризисом

to bring about a crisis — вызывать кризис, служить толчком к началу кризиса

to bring an end to a crisis — положить конец кризису

to bring the government out of the crisis — положить конец правительственному кризису

to calm the crisis — ослаблять кризис

to come to grips with a crisis — пытаться урегулировать кризис

to create a crisis — создавать кризис / кризисное положение

to deal with a crisis — справляться с кризисом

to deepen a crisis — обострять / усугублять кризис

to de-escalate / to defuse the crisis — сокращать масштабы кризиса, ослаблять кризис

to deter a crisis — сдерживать развитие кризиса

to discuss the way forward over the crisis — обсуждать дальнейшие шаги по преодолению кризиса

to ease the crisis — сокращать масштабы кризиса, ослаблять кризис

to emerge from a crisis with flying colors — выходить с честью из кризиса

to engineer a crisis — провоцировать кризис

to exacerbate a crisis — обострять / усугублять кризис

to exploit a crisis — воспользоваться кризисом

to face a crisis — сталкиваться с кризисом; стоять на пороге кризиса

to foment a crisis — разжигать кризис

to force the crisis to a speedy resolution — прилагать усилия для скорейшего разрешения кризиса

to get out of a crisis — выбираться из кризиса

to go through a crisis — испытывать кризис

to grapple with a crisis — бороться с кризисом

to handle a crisis — справляться с кризисом

to head off a crisis — предотвращать кризис

to help smb out of crisis — помогать кому-л. преодолеть кризис

to herald a crisis — возвещать о наступлении кризиса

to ignite a crisis — вызывать кризис, служить толчком к началу кризиса

to limp / to lurch from one crisis to another — идти от кризиса к кризису

to meet a crisis — столкнуться с кризисом

to overcome a crisis — преодолевать кризис

to pass through a crisis — переживать кризис

to plunge a country into a crisis — ввергать страну в кризис

to precipitate a crisis — ускорять наступление кризиса

to prevent a crisis — предотвращать кризис

to provoke a crisis — провоцировать кризис

to pull a country out of a crisis — выводить страну из кризиса

to put an end to a crisis — положить конец кризису

to rescue a country from a crisis — выводить страну из кризиса

to resolve a crisis — преодолевать / разрешать кризис, справляться с кризисом

to respond inadequately to a crisis — принимать недостаточные меры для преодоления кризиса

to see the crisis through — выдерживать кризис

to settle / to solve a crisis — преодолевать / разрешать кризис, справляться с кризисом

to spark off / to trigger (off) a crisis — вызывать кризис, служить толчком к началу кризиса

to tackle a crisis — пытаться урегулировать кризис

to take the heat out of the crisis — ослаблять кризис

to widen a crisis — увеличивать масштабы кризиса

to worsen a crisis — обострять / усугублять кризис

- acute crisis
- affected by the crisis
- against the backdrop of a crisis

- aggravation of a crisis
- agrarian crisis
- agricultural crisis
- amidst the worst crisis
- artificial crisis
- balance-of-payments crisis
- bilateral crisis
- budget crisis
- cabinet crisis
- chronic crisis
- consequences of a crisis
- constitutional crisis
- crisis blew up
- crisis broke out
- crisis came to a head
- crisis continues unabated
- crisis erupted
- crisis flared
- crisis gripped the country
- crisis is brewing
- crisis is building up
- crisis is deepening by the hour
- crisis is reaching a climax
- crisis of confidence
- crisis of power
- crisis of the ruling regime
- crisis spills over into war
- current crisis
- cyclical crisis
- deep crisis
- deepening crisis
- deepening mood of crisis
- deep-seated crisis
- diplomatic solution to a crisis
- dire crisis
- ecological crisis
- economic crisis
- elimination of a crisis
- energy crisis
- every possible avenue has got to be explored to find a political solution to the crisis
- exchange crisis
- financial crisis
- fiscal crisis
- food crisis
- fuel crisis
- general crisis
- global crisis
- government crisis
- governmental crisis
- grave crisis
- Gulf crisis
- home crisis
- hostage crisis
- housing crisis
- imminent crisis
- impact of a crisis
- in a state of crisis
- in the grip of a crisis

- industrial crisis
- internal crisis
- internal political crisis
- international crisis
- intractable crisis
- looming crisis
- ministerial crisis
- monetary and financial crisis
- mounting crisis
- national crisis
- offset of the crisis
- oil crisis
- on the verge of a crisis
- peaceful outcome to a crisis
- periodic crisis
- perpetual crisis
- petroleum crisis
- phase of a crisis
- political crisis
- profound crisis
- protracted crisis
- raw-materials crisis
- recurrent crisis
- resolution of a crisis
- serious crisis
- settling of a crisis
- severe crisis
- signs of a crisis
- social crisis
- spiraling crisis
- underlying crisis
- unparalleled crisis
- way out of the crisis
- world crisis

Politics english-russian dictionary > crisis
5 budget deficit
1. дефицит бюджета
2. бюджетный дефицит
бюджетный дефицит
Превышение государственных расходов над государственными доходами, которое должно покрываться либо за счет займов, либо путем денежной эмиссии. Кейнсианцы утверждали, что государству во время экономических спадов (recession) следует поддерживать бюджетный дефицит, чтобы стимулировать совокупный спрос (см.: pump priming (дефицитное финансирование)). Монетаристы и неоклассики макроэкономики, напротив, полагают, что бюджетный дефицит просто стимулирует инфляцию (inflation) и препятствует росту частных капиталовложений. В настоящее время большинство экономистов придерживается той точки зрения, что, по крайней мере в среднем государству следует стремиться к сбалансированному бюджету, и что постоянный бюджетный дефицит надо ликвидировать путем либо сокращения государственных расходов, либо увеличения налогообложения. В некоторых случаях во время бума в результате получения доходов, превышающих расходы, может возникать бюджетный избыток (budget surplus).
[ http://www.vocable.ru/dictionary/533/symbol/97]

бюджетный дефицит
Ситуация, когда расходы правительства превышают его доходы. Подробнее см. Дефицит бюджета. Бюджетный кризис (budget crisis) – ситуация, когда резко обостряется дефицит бюджета, и государство теряет возможность выполнения своих обязательств – прежде всего социальных обязательств. Возникает опасность социального взрыва. Яркий пример – бюджетный кризис в России 1965-66 гг. Начиная с 1992 г. уровень государственных доходов, при некоторых колебаниях, снижался постепенно. Однако в 1996 г. падение доходов стало обвальным. Помимо роста недоимок, этому способствовал также рост масштабов противозаконного уклонения от налогов (См. Оливера-Танзи эффект) самыми разными способами и, что очень важно, за счет «черного нала» то есть «путем осуществления хозяйственных операций наличными деньгами, не отражаемыми в бухгалтерской отчетности». Из-за широкого распространения взаимных неплатежей существенно снизилась облагаемая база налога на прибыль и НДС. В первой половине 1996 г. объем дебиторской задолженности почти утроился. Нарастал процесс бартеризации экономики (см. Бартер), быстрого распространения многоходовых схем безденежного взаимозачета долгов между поставщиками и их клиентами. Минфин использовал для налоговых освобождений товарный кредит и другие формы бартера. В результате таких операций многие предприятия могли вести свое хозяйство при минимальных объемах денежных средств. Порой у них на расчетных счетах просто не оказывалось средств на выплату налогов, и это дополнительно приводило к росту недоимок в бюджет. При осуществлении зачетов между налогоплательщиками, бюджетом и получателями бюджетных средств, так же как и при бартерных сделках, обычно использовались заниженные нерыночные цены, а значит, снижалась налоговая база. Для преодоления бюджетного кризиса правительство было вынуждено брать деньги в долг, в огромных масштабах размещая ГКО (см. Государственные краткосрочные обязательства). В 1998 году это отозвалось известным экономическим кризисом, потрясшим страну. Не только Россия, но все страны переходной экономики переживали бюджетный кризис (некоторые — не однажды). На ранних этапах постсоциалистического перехода бюджетные (то же: фискальные) кризисы создавали серьезные угрозы самому существованию новых социальных институтов. Динамика постсоциалистического бюджетного кризиса хорошо изучена, прежде всего, на материалах Восточной Европы. Польский экономист М. Домбровский выделяет четыре его этапа: –– фискальная дестабилизация, предшествующая началу реформ; –– макроэкономическая стабилизация, связанная с либерализацией экономики; –– вторичный фискальный кризис, следующий за стабилизацией; –– восстановление фискального потенциала, связанное с экономическим оживлением и развертыванием реформ в системе государственных финансов. (См. О природе бюджетных кризисов этапа финансовой стабилизации // Е.Гайдар, Собр. соч. т. 6 с. 322) Для преодоления бюджетного кризиса ключевым вопросом становится способность правительства проводить необходимые реформы — реформу социальных фондов и системы социальной поддержки, реформу межбюджетных отношений и налоговой системы. Без этого бюджетный кризис преодолеть невозможно.
[ http://slovar-lopatnikov.ru/]

Тематики
- финансы
- экономика
EN
- budget deficit
дефицит бюджета
Разница между совокупными обязательствами по доходам и текущим бюджетом расходов.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

дефицит бюджета
Превышение расходов бюджета над доходами. Если иметь в виду Д.б. семьи или фирмы, то его недопустимость не вызывает ни у кого сомнений. Если же говорить о бюджете государства, то положение здесь иное. Отвлекаясь от частностей, дефицит государственного бюджета означает превышение суммы правительственных рас¬ходов над суммой налогов и увеличение, таким образом, накапливаемого государственного долга. Доказано. что Д.б. является важнейшим фактором, ускоряющим инфляцию, и потому, казалось бы, задачей экономической политики является сведение его к минимуму или лучше — к нулю. Однако есть экономисты, которые полагают, что умеренный Д.б. в периоды экономического спада не только допустим, но и может быть рекомендован, так как увеличенные расходы бюджета, благодаря действию мультипликатора Кейнса, способны вызвать повышение национального дохода, компенсирующее и даже превышающее дефицит. Практика не подтверждает, по-видимому, этого предположения. В России, в связи с высоким уровнем инфляции, дефицит федерального бюджета обычно оценивается в процентах от валового внутреннего продукта (ВВП); анализ номинальных цифр не приемлем, поскольку невозможны их сопоставления во времени. Противоположность дефицита — профицит бюджета. См.также: Вторичный дефицит государственного бюджета, Первичный дефицит государственного бюджета.
[ http://slovar-lopatnikov.ru/]

EN

budget gap
The difference between total revenue commitments and the current expense budget.
[Департамент лингвистических услуг Оргкомитета «Сочи 2014». Глоссарий терминов]

Тематики
- спорт (финансы и правовое обеспечение)
- экономика
EN
- budget deficit
- budget gap
Англо-русский словарь нормативно-технической терминологии > budget deficit
6 Historical Portugal

   Before Romans described western Iberia or Hispania as "Lusitania," ancient Iberians inhabited the land. Phoenician and Greek trading settlements grew up in the Tagus estuary area and nearby coasts. Beginning around 202 BCE, Romans invaded what is today southern Portugal. With Rome's defeat of Carthage, Romans proceeded to conquer and rule the western region north of the Tagus, which they named Roman "Lusitania." In the fourth century CE, as Rome's rule weakened, the area experienced yet another invasion—Germanic tribes, principally the Suevi, who eventually were Christianized. During the sixth century CE, the Suevi kingdom was superseded by yet another Germanic tribe—the Christian Visigoths.

   A major turning point in Portugal's history came in 711, as Muslim armies from North Africa, consisting of both Arab and Berber elements, invaded the Iberian Peninsula from across the Straits of Gibraltar. They entered what is now Portugal in 714, and proceeded to conquer most of the country except for the far north. For the next half a millennium, Islam and Muslim presence in Portugal left a significant mark upon the politics, government, language, and culture of the country.

   Islam, Reconquest, and Portugal Created, 714-1140

   The long frontier struggle between Muslim invaders and Christian communities in the north of the Iberian peninsula was called the Reconquista (Reconquest). It was during this struggle that the first dynasty of Portuguese kings (Burgundian) emerged and the independent monarchy of Portugal was established. Christian forces moved south from what is now the extreme north of Portugal and gradually defeated Muslim forces, besieging and capturing towns under Muslim sway. In the ninth century, as Christian forces slowly made their way southward, Christian elements were dominant only in the area between Minho province and the Douro River; this region became known as "territorium Portu-calense."

   In the 11th century, the advance of the Reconquest quickened as local Christian armies were reinforced by crusading knights from what is now France and England. Christian forces took Montemor (1034), at the Mondego River; Lamego (1058); Viseu (1058); and Coimbra (1064). In 1095, the king of Castile and Léon granted the country of "Portu-cale," what became northern Portugal, to a Burgundian count who had emigrated from France. This was the foundation of Portugal. In 1139, a descendant of this count, Afonso Henriques, proclaimed himself "King of Portugal." He was Portugal's first monarch, the "Founder," and the first of the Burgundian dynasty, which ruled until 1385.

   The emergence of Portugal in the 12th century as a separate monarchy in Iberia occurred before the Christian Reconquest of the peninsula. In the 1140s, the pope in Rome recognized Afonso Henriques as king of Portugal. In 1147, after a long, bloody siege, Muslim-occupied Lisbon fell to Afonso Henriques's army. Lisbon was the greatest prize of the 500-year war. Assisting this effort were English crusaders on their way to the Holy Land; the first bishop of Lisbon was an Englishman. When the Portuguese captured Faro and Silves in the Algarve province in 1248-50, the Reconquest of the extreme western portion of the Iberian peninsula was complete—significantly, more than two centuries before the Spanish crown completed the Reconquest of the eastern portion by capturing Granada in 1492.

   Consolidation and Independence of Burgundian Portugal, 1140-1385

   Two main themes of Portugal's early existence as a monarchy are the consolidation of control over the realm and the defeat of a Castil-ian threat from the east to its independence. At the end of this period came the birth of a new royal dynasty (Aviz), which prepared to carry the Christian Reconquest beyond continental Portugal across the straits of Gibraltar to North Africa. There was a variety of motives behind these developments. Portugal's independent existence was imperiled by threats from neighboring Iberian kingdoms to the north and east. Politics were dominated not only by efforts against the Muslims in

   Portugal (until 1250) and in nearby southern Spain (until 1492), but also by internecine warfare among the kingdoms of Castile, Léon, Aragon, and Portugal. A final comeback of Muslim forces was defeated at the battle of Salado (1340) by allied Castilian and Portuguese forces. In the emerging Kingdom of Portugal, the monarch gradually gained power over and neutralized the nobility and the Church.

   The historic and commonplace Portuguese saying "From Spain, neither a good wind nor a good marriage" was literally played out in diplomacy and war in the late 14th-century struggles for mastery in the peninsula. Larger, more populous Castile was pitted against smaller Portugal. Castile's Juan I intended to force a union between Castile and Portugal during this era of confusion and conflict. In late 1383, Portugal's King Fernando, the last king of the Burgundian dynasty, suddenly died prematurely at age 38, and the Master of Aviz, Portugal's most powerful nobleman, took up the cause of independence and resistance against Castile's invasion. The Master of Aviz, who became King João I of Portugal, was able to obtain foreign assistance. With the aid of English archers, Joao's armies defeated the Castilians in the crucial battle of Aljubarrota, on 14 August 1385, a victory that assured the independence of the Portuguese monarchy from its Castilian nemesis for several centuries.

   Aviz Dynasty and Portugal's First Overseas Empire, 1385-1580

   The results of the victory at Aljubarrota, much celebrated in Portugal's art and monuments, and the rise of the Aviz dynasty also helped to establish a new merchant class in Lisbon and Oporto, Portugal's second city. This group supported King João I's program of carrying the Reconquest to North Africa, since it was interested in expanding Portugal's foreign commerce and tapping into Muslim trade routes and resources in Africa. With the Reconquest against the Muslims completed in Portugal and the threat from Castile thwarted for the moment, the Aviz dynasty launched an era of overseas conquest, exploration, and trade. These efforts dominated Portugal's 15th and 16th centuries.

   The overseas empire and age of Discoveries began with Portugal's bold conquest in 1415 of the Moroccan city of Ceuta. One royal member of the 1415 expedition was young, 21-year-old Prince Henry, later known in history as "Prince Henry the Navigator." His part in the capture of Ceuta won Henry his knighthood and began Portugal's "Marvelous Century," during which the small kingdom was counted as a European and world power of consequence. Henry was the son of King João I and his English queen, Philippa of Lancaster, but he did not inherit the throne. Instead, he spent most of his life and his fortune, and that of the wealthy military Order of Christ, on various imperial ventures and on voyages of exploration down the African coast and into the Atlantic. While mythology has surrounded Henry's controversial role in the Discoveries, and this role has been exaggerated, there is no doubt that he played a vital part in the initiation of Portugal's first overseas empire and in encouraging exploration. He was naturally curious, had a sense of mission for Portugal, and was a strong leader. He also had wealth to expend; at least a third of the African voyages of the time were under his sponsorship. If Prince Henry himself knew little science, significant scientific advances in navigation were made in his day.

   What were Portugal's motives for this new imperial effort? The well-worn historical cliche of "God, Glory, and Gold" can only partly explain the motivation of a small kingdom with few natural resources and barely 1 million people, which was greatly outnumbered by the other powers it confronted. Among Portuguese objectives were the desire to exploit known North African trade routes and resources (gold, wheat, leather, weaponry, and other goods that were scarce in Iberia); the need to outflank the Muslim world in the Mediterranean by sailing around Africa, attacking Muslims en route; and the wish to ally with Christian kingdoms beyond Africa. This enterprise also involved a strategy of breaking the Venetian spice monopoly by trading directly with the East by means of discovering and exploiting a sea route around Africa to Asia. Besides the commercial motives, Portugal nurtured a strong crusading sense of Christian mission, and various classes in the kingdom saw an opportunity for fame and gain.

   By the time of Prince Henry's death in 1460, Portugal had gained control of the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeiras, begun to colonize the Cape Verde Islands, failed to conquer the Canary Islands from Castile, captured various cities on Morocco's coast, and explored as far as Senegal, West Africa, down the African coast. By 1488, Bar-tolomeu Dias had rounded the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa and thereby discovered the way to the Indian Ocean.

   Portugal's largely coastal African empire and later its fragile Asian empire brought unexpected wealth but were purchased at a high price. Costs included wars of conquest and defense against rival powers, manning the far-flung navel and trade fleets and scattered castle-fortresses, and staffing its small but fierce armies, all of which entailed a loss of skills and population to maintain a scattered empire. Always short of capital, the monarchy became indebted to bankers. There were many defeats beginning in the 16th century at the hands of the larger imperial European monarchies (Spain, France, England, and Holland) and many attacks on Portugal and its strung-out empire. Typically, there was also the conflict that arose when a tenuously held world empire that rarely if ever paid its way demanded finance and manpower Portugal itself lacked.

   The first 80 years of the glorious imperial era, the golden age of Portugal's imperial power and world influence, was an African phase. During 1415-88, Portuguese navigators and explorers in small ships, some of them caravelas (caravels), explored the treacherous, disease-ridden coasts of Africa from Morocco to South Africa beyond the Cape of Good Hope. By the 1470s, the Portuguese had reached the Gulf of Guinea and, in the early 1480s, what is now Angola. Bartolomeu Dias's extraordinary voyage of 1487-88 to South Africa's coast and the edge of the Indian Ocean convinced Portugal that the best route to Asia's spices and Christians lay south, around the tip of southern Africa. Between 1488 and 1495, there was a hiatus caused in part by domestic conflict in Portugal, discussion of resources available for further conquests beyond Africa in Asia, and serious questions as to Portugal's capacity to reach beyond Africa. In 1495, King Manuel and his council decided to strike for Asia, whatever the consequences. In 1497-99, Vasco da Gama, under royal orders, made the epic two-year voyage that discovered the sea route to western India (Asia), outflanked Islam and Venice, and began Portugal's Asian empire. Within 50 years, Portugal had discovered and begun the exploitation of its largest colony, Brazil, and set up forts and trading posts from the Middle East (Aden and Ormuz), India (Calicut, Goa, etc.), Malacca, and Indonesia to Macau in China.

   By the 1550s, parts of its largely coastal, maritime trading post empire from Morocco to the Moluccas were under siege from various hostile forces, including Muslims, Christians, and Hindi. Although Moroccan forces expelled the Portuguese from the major coastal cities by 1550, the rival European monarchies of Castile (Spain), England, France, and later Holland began to seize portions of her undermanned, outgunned maritime empire.

   In 1580, Phillip II of Spain, whose mother was a Portuguese princess and who had a strong claim to the Portuguese throne, invaded Portugal, claimed the throne, and assumed control over the realm and, by extension, its African, Asian, and American empires. Phillip II filled the power vacuum that appeared in Portugal following the loss of most of Portugal's army and its young, headstrong King Sebastião in a disastrous war in Morocco. Sebastiao's death in battle (1578) and the lack of a natural heir to succeed him, as well as the weak leadership of the cardinal who briefly assumed control in Lisbon, led to a crisis that Spain's strong monarch exploited. As a result, Portugal lost its independence to Spain for a period of 60 years.

   Portugal under Spanish Rule, 1580-1640

   Despite the disastrous nature of Portugal's experience under Spanish rule, "The Babylonian Captivity" gave birth to modern Portuguese nationalism, its second overseas empire, and its modern alliance system with England. Although Spain allowed Portugal's weakened empire some autonomy, Spanish rule in Portugal became increasingly burdensome and unacceptable. Spain's ambitious imperial efforts in Europe and overseas had an impact on the Portuguese as Spain made greater and greater demands on its smaller neighbor for manpower and money. Portugal's culture underwent a controversial Castilianization, while its empire became hostage to Spain's fortunes. New rival powers England, France, and Holland attacked and took parts of Spain's empire and at the same time attacked Portugal's empire, as well as the mother country.

   Portugal's empire bore the consequences of being attacked by Spain's bitter enemies in what was a form of world war. Portuguese losses were heavy. By 1640, Portugal had lost most of its Moroccan cities as well as Ceylon, the Moluccas, and sections of India. With this, Portugal's Asian empire was gravely weakened. Only Goa, Damão, Diu, Bombay, Timor, and Macau remained and, in Brazil, Dutch forces occupied the northeast.

   On 1 December 1640, long commemorated as a national holiday, Portuguese rebels led by the duke of Braganza overthrew Spanish domination and took advantage of Spanish weakness following a more serious rebellion in Catalonia. Portugal regained independence from Spain, but at a price: dependence on foreign assistance to maintain its independence in the form of the renewal of the alliance with England.

   Restoration and Second Empire, 1640-1822

   Foreign affairs and empire dominated the restoration era and aftermath, and Portugal again briefly enjoyed greater European power and prestige. The Anglo-Portuguese Alliance was renewed and strengthened in treaties of 1642, 1654, and 1661, and Portugal's independence from Spain was underwritten by English pledges and armed assistance. In a Luso-Spanish treaty of 1668, Spain recognized Portugal's independence. Portugal's alliance with England was a marriage of convenience and necessity between two monarchies with important religious, cultural, and social differences. In return for legal, diplomatic, and trade privileges, as well as the use during war and peace of Portugal's great Lisbon harbor and colonial ports for England's navy, England pledged to protect Portugal and its scattered empire from any attack. The previously cited 17th-century alliance treaties were renewed later in the Treaty of Windsor, signed in London in 1899. On at least 10 different occasions after 1640, and during the next two centuries, England was central in helping prevent or repel foreign invasions of its ally, Portugal.

   Portugal's second empire (1640-1822) was largely Brazil-oriented. Portuguese colonization, exploitation of wealth, and emigration focused on Portuguese America, and imperial revenues came chiefly from Brazil. Between 1670 and 1740, Portugal's royalty and nobility grew wealthier on funds derived from Brazilian gold, diamonds, sugar, tobacco, and other crops, an enterprise supported by the Atlantic slave trade and the supply of African slave labor from West Africa and Angola. Visitors today can see where much of that wealth was invested: Portugal's rich legacy of monumental architecture. Meanwhile, the African slave trade took a toll in Angola and West Africa.

   In continental Portugal, absolutist monarchy dominated politics and government, and there was a struggle for position and power between the monarchy and other institutions, such as the Church and nobility. King José I's chief minister, usually known in history as the marquis of Pombal (ruled 1750-77), sharply suppressed the nobility and the

   Church (including the Inquisition, now a weak institution) and expelled the Jesuits. Pombal also made an effort to reduce economic dependence on England, Portugal's oldest ally. But his successes did not last much beyond his disputed time in office.

   Beginning in the late 18th century, the European-wide impact of the French Revolution and the rise of Napoleon placed Portugal in a vulnerable position. With the monarchy ineffectively led by an insane queen (Maria I) and her indecisive regent son (João VI), Portugal again became the focus of foreign ambition and aggression. With England unable to provide decisive assistance in time, France—with Spain's consent—invaded Portugal in 1807. As Napoleon's army under General Junot entered Lisbon meeting no resistance, Portugal's royal family fled on a British fleet to Brazil, where it remained in exile until 1821. In the meantime, Portugal's overseas empire was again under threat. There was a power vacuum as the monarch was absent, foreign armies were present, and new political notions of liberalism and constitutional monarchy were exciting various groups of citizens.

   Again England came to the rescue, this time in the form of the armies of the duke of Wellington. Three successive French invasions of Portugal were defeated and expelled, and Wellington succeeded in carrying the war against Napoleon across the Portuguese frontier into Spain. The presence of the English army, the new French-born liberal ideas, and the political vacuum combined to create revolutionary conditions. The French invasions and the peninsular wars, where Portuguese armed forces played a key role, marked the beginning of a new era in politics.

   Liberalism and Constitutional Monarchy, 1822-1910

   During 1807-22, foreign invasions, war, and civil strife over conflicting political ideas gravely damaged Portugal's commerce, economy, and novice industry. The next terrible blow was the loss of Brazil in 1822, the jewel in the imperial crown. Portugal's very independence seemed to be at risk. In vain, Portugal sought to resist Brazilian independence by force, but in 1825 it formally acknowledged Brazilian independence by treaty.

   Portugal's slow recovery from the destructive French invasions and the "war of independence" was complicated by civil strife over the form of constitutional monarchy that best suited Portugal. After struggles over these issues between 1820 and 1834, Portugal settled somewhat uncertainly into a moderate constitutional monarchy whose constitution (Charter of 1826) lent it strong political powers to exert a moderating influence between the executive and legislative branches of the government. It also featured a new upper middle class based on land ownership and commerce; a Catholic Church that, although still important, lived with reduced privileges and property; a largely African (third) empire to which Lisbon and Oporto devoted increasing spiritual and material resources, starting with the liberal imperial plans of 1836 and 1851, and continuing with the work of institutions like the Lisbon Society of Geography (established 1875); and a mass of rural peasants whose bonds to the land weakened after 1850 and who began to immigrate in increasing numbers to Brazil and North America.

   Chronic military intervention in national politics began in 19th-century Portugal. Such intervention, usually commencing with coups or pronunciamentos (military revolts), was a shortcut to the spoils of political office and could reflect popular discontent as well as the power of personalities. An early example of this was the 1817 golpe (coup) attempt of General Gomes Freire against British military rule in Portugal before the return of King João VI from Brazil. Except for a more stable period from 1851 to 1880, military intervention in politics, or the threat thereof, became a feature of the constitutional monarchy's political life, and it continued into the First Republic and the subsequent Estado Novo.

   Beginning with the Regeneration period (1851-80), Portugal experienced greater political stability and economic progress. Military intervention in politics virtually ceased; industrialization and construction of railroads, roads, and bridges proceeded; two political parties (Regenerators and Historicals) worked out a system of rotation in power; and leading intellectuals sparked a cultural revival in several fields. In 19th-century literature, there was a new golden age led by such figures as Alexandre Herculano (historian), Eça de Queirós (novelist), Almeida Garrett (playwright and essayist), Antero de Quental (poet), and Joaquim Oliveira Martins (historian and social scientist). In its third overseas empire, Portugal attempted to replace the slave trade and slavery with legitimate economic activities; to reform the administration; and to expand Portuguese holdings beyond coastal footholds deep into the African hinterlands in West, West Central, and East Africa. After 1841, to some extent, and especially after 1870, colonial affairs, combined with intense nationalism, pressures for economic profit in Africa, sentiment for national revival, and the drift of European affairs would make or break Lisbon governments.

   Beginning with the political crisis that arose out of the "English Ultimatum" affair of January 1890, the monarchy became discredtted and identified with the poorly functioning government, political parties splintered, and republicanism found more supporters. Portugal participated in the "Scramble for Africa," expanding its African holdings, but failed to annex territory connecting Angola and Mozambique. A growing foreign debt and state bankruptcy as of the early 1890s damaged the constitutional monarchy's reputation, despite the efforts of King Carlos in diplomacy, the renewal of the alliance in the Windsor Treaty of 1899, and the successful if bloody colonial wars in the empire (1880-97). Republicanism proclaimed that Portugal's weak economy and poor society were due to two historic institutions: the monarchy and the Catholic Church. A republic, its stalwarts claimed, would bring greater individual liberty; efficient, if more decentralized government; and a stronger colonial program while stripping the Church of its role in both society and education.

   As the monarchy lost support and republicans became more aggressive, violence increased in politics. King Carlos I and his heir Luís were murdered in Lisbon by anarchist-republicans on 1 February 1908. Following a military and civil insurrection and fighting between monarchist and republican forces, on 5 October 1910, King Manuel II fled Portugal and a republic was proclaimed.

   First Parliamentary Republic, 1910-26

   Portugal's first attempt at republican government was the most unstable, turbulent parliamentary republic in the history of 20th-century Western Europe. During a little under 16 years of the republic, there were 45 governments, a number of legislatures that did not complete normal terms, military coups, and only one president who completed his four-year term in office. Portuguese society was poorly prepared for this political experiment. Among the deadly legacies of the monarchy were a huge public debt; a largely rural, apolitical, and illiterate peasant population; conflict over the causes of the country's misfortunes; and lack of experience with a pluralist, democratic system.

   The republic had some talented leadership but lacked popular, institutional, and economic support. The 1911 republican constitution established only a limited democracy, as only a small portion of the adult male citizenry was eligible to vote. In a country where the majority was Catholic, the republic passed harshly anticlerical laws, and its institutions and supporters persecuted both the Church and its adherents. During its brief disjointed life, the First Republic drafted important reform plans in economic, social, and educational affairs; actively promoted development in the empire; and pursued a liberal, generous foreign policy. Following British requests for Portugal's assistance in World War I, Portugal entered the war on the Allied side in March 1916 and sent armies to Flanders and Portuguese Africa. Portugal's intervention in that conflict, however, was too costly in many respects, and the ultimate failure of the republic in part may be ascribed to Portugal's World War I activities.

   Unfortunately for the republic, its time coincided with new threats to Portugal's African possessions: World War I, social and political demands from various classes that could not be reconciled, excessive military intervention in politics, and, in particular, the worst economic and financial crisis Portugal had experienced since the 16th and 17th centuries. After the original Portuguese Republican Party (PRP, also known as the "Democrats") splintered into three warring groups in 1912, no true multiparty system emerged. The Democrats, except for only one or two elections, held an iron monopoly of electoral power, and political corruption became a major issue. As extreme right-wing dictatorships elsewhere in Europe began to take power in Italy (1922), neighboring Spain (1923), and Greece (1925), what scant popular support remained for the republic collapsed. Backed by a right-wing coalition of landowners from Alentejo, clergy, Coimbra University faculty and students, Catholic organizations, and big business, career military officers led by General Gomes da Costa executed a coup on 28 May 1926, turned out the last republican government, and established a military government.

   The Estado Novo (New State), 1926-74

   During the military phase (1926-32) of the Estado Novo, professional military officers, largely from the army, governed and administered Portugal and held key cabinet posts, but soon discovered that the military possessed no magic formula that could readily solve the problems inherited from the First Republic. Especially during the years 1926-31, the military dictatorship, even with its political repression of republican activities and institutions (military censorship of the press, political police action, and closure of the republic's rowdy parliament), was characterized by similar weaknesses: personalism and factionalism; military coups and political instability, including civil strife and loss of life; state debt and bankruptcy; and a weak economy. "Barracks parliamentarism" was not an acceptable alternative even to the "Nightmare Republic."

   Led by General Óscar Carmona, who had replaced and sent into exile General Gomes da Costa, the military dictatorship turned to a civilian expert in finance and economics to break the budget impasse and bring coherence to the disorganized system. Appointed minister of finance on 27 April 1928, the Coimbra University Law School professor of economics Antônio de Oliveira Salazar (1889-1970) first reformed finance, helped balance the budget, and then turned to other concerns as he garnered extraordinary governing powers. In 1930, he was appointed interim head of another key ministry (Colonies) and within a few years had become, in effect, a civilian dictator who, with the military hierarchy's support, provided the government with coherence, a program, and a set of policies.

   For nearly 40 years after he was appointed the first civilian prime minister in 1932, Salazar's personality dominated the government. Unlike extreme right-wing dictators elsewhere in Europe, Salazar was directly appointed by the army but was never endorsed by a popular political party, street militia, or voter base. The scholarly, reclusive former Coimbra University professor built up what became known after 1932 as the Estado Novo ("New State"), which at the time of its overthrow by another military coup in 1974, was the longest surviving authoritarian regime in Western Europe. The system of Salazar and the largely academic and technocratic ruling group he gathered in his cabinets was based on the central bureaucracy of the state, which was supported by the president of the republic—always a senior career military officer, General Óscar Carmona (1928-51), General Craveiro Lopes (1951-58), and Admiral Américo Tómaz (1958-74)—and the complicity of various institutions. These included a rubber-stamp legislature called the National Assembly (1935-74) and a political police known under various names: PVDE (1932-45), PIDE (1945-69),

   and DGS (1969-74). Other defenders of the Estado Novo security were paramilitary organizations such as the National Republican Guard (GNR); the Portuguese Legion (PL); and the Portuguese Youth [Movement]. In addition to censorship of the media, theater, and books, there was political repression and a deliberate policy of depoliticization. All political parties except for the approved movement of regime loyalists, the União Nacional or (National Union), were banned.

   The most vigorous and more popular period of the New State was 1932-44, when the basic structures were established. Never monolithic or entirely the work of one person (Salazar), the New State was constructed with the assistance of several dozen top associates who were mainly academics from law schools, some technocrats with specialized skills, and a handful of trusted career military officers. The 1933 Constitution declared Portugal to be a "unitary, corporative Republic," and pressures to restore the monarchy were resisted. Although some of the regime's followers were fascists and pseudofascists, many more were conservative Catholics, integralists, nationalists, and monarchists of different varieties, and even some reactionary republicans. If the New State was authoritarian, it was not totalitarian and, unlike fascism in Benito Mussolini's Italy or Adolf Hitler's Germany, it usually employed the minimum of violence necessary to defeat what remained a largely fractious, incoherent opposition.

   With the tumultuous Second Republic and the subsequent civil war in nearby Spain, the regime felt threatened and reinforced its defenses. During what Salazar rightly perceived as a time of foreign policy crisis for Portugal (1936-45), he assumed control of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. From there, he pursued four basic foreign policy objectives: supporting the Nationalist rebels of General Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39) and concluding defense treaties with a triumphant Franco; ensuring that General Franco in an exhausted Spain did not enter World War II on the Axis side; maintaining Portuguese neutrality in World War II with a post-1942 tilt toward the Allies, including granting Britain and the United States use of bases in the Azores Islands; and preserving and protecting Portugal's Atlantic Islands and its extensive, if poor, overseas empire in Africa and Asia.

   During the middle years of the New State (1944-58), many key Salazar associates in government either died or resigned, and there was greater social unrest in the form of unprecedented strikes and clandestine Communist activities, intensified opposition, and new threatening international pressures on Portugal's overseas empire. During the earlier phase of the Cold War (1947-60), Portugal became a steadfast, if weak, member of the US-dominated North Atlantic Treaty Organization alliance and, in 1955, with American support, Portugal joined the United Nations (UN). Colonial affairs remained a central concern of the regime. As of 1939, Portugal was the third largest colonial power in the world and possessed territories in tropical Africa (Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe Islands) and the remnants of its 16th-century empire in Asia (Goa, Damão, Diu, East Timor, and Macau). Beginning in the early 1950s, following the independence of India in 1947, Portugal resisted Indian pressures to decolonize Portuguese India and used police forces to discourage internal opposition in its Asian and African colonies.

   The later years of the New State (1958-68) witnessed the aging of the increasingly isolated but feared Salazar and new threats both at home and overseas. Although the regime easily overcame the brief oppositionist threat from rival presidential candidate General Humberto Delgado in the spring of 1958, new developments in the African and Asian empires imperiled the authoritarian system. In February 1961, oppositionists hijacked the Portuguese ocean liner Santa Maria and, in following weeks, African insurgents in northern Angola, although they failed to expel the Portuguese, gained worldwide media attention, discredited the New State, and began the 13-year colonial war. After thwarting a dissident military coup against his continued leadership, Salazar and his ruling group mobilized military repression in Angola and attempted to develop the African colonies at a faster pace in order to ensure Portuguese control. Meanwhile, the other European colonial powers (Britain, France, Belgium, and Spain) rapidly granted political independence to their African territories.

   At the time of Salazar's removal from power in September 1968, following a stroke, Portugal's efforts to maintain control over its colonies appeared to be successful. President Americo Tomás appointed Dr. Marcello Caetano as Salazar's successor as prime minister. While maintaining the New State's basic structures, and continuing the regime's essential colonial policy, Caetano attempted wider reforms in colonial administration and some devolution of power from Lisbon, as well as more freedom of expression in Lisbon. Still, a great deal of the budget was devoted to supporting the wars against the insurgencies in Africa. Meanwhile in Asia, Portuguese India had fallen when the Indian army invaded in December 1961. The loss of Goa was a psychological blow to the leadership of the New State, and of the Asian empire only East Timor and Macau remained.

   The Caetano years (1968-74) were but a hiatus between the waning Salazar era and a new regime. There was greater political freedom and rapid economic growth (5-6 percent annually to late 1973), but Caetano's government was unable to reform the old system thoroughly and refused to consider new methods either at home or in the empire. In the end, regime change came from junior officers of the professional military who organized the Armed Forces Movement (MFA) against the Caetano government. It was this group of several hundred officers, mainly in the army and navy, which engineered a largely bloodless coup in Lisbon on 25 April 1974. Their unexpected action brought down the 48-year-old New State and made possible the eventual establishment and consolidation of democratic governance in Portugal, as well as a reorientation of the country away from the Atlantic toward Europe.

   Revolution of Carnations, 1974-76

   Following successful military operations of the Armed Forces Movement against the Caetano government, Portugal experienced what became known as the "Revolution of Carnations." It so happened that during the rainy week of the military golpe, Lisbon flower shops were featuring carnations, and the revolutionaries and their supporters adopted the red carnation as the common symbol of the event, as well as of the new freedom from dictatorship. The MFA, whose leaders at first were mostly little-known majors and captains, proclaimed a three-fold program of change for the new Portugal: democracy; decolonization of the overseas empire, after ending the colonial wars; and developing a backward economy in the spirit of opportunity and equality. During the first 24 months after the coup, there was civil strife, some anarchy, and a power struggle. With the passing of the Estado Novo, public euphoria burst forth as the new provisional military government proclaimed the freedoms of speech, press, and assembly, and abolished censorship, the political police, the Portuguese Legion, Portuguese Youth, and other New State organizations, including the National Union. Scores of political parties were born and joined the senior political party, the Portuguese Community Party (PCP), and the Socialist Party (PS), founded shortly before the coup.

   Portugal's Revolution of Carnations went through several phases. There was an attempt to take control by radical leftists, including the PCP and its allies. This was thwarted by moderate officers in the army, as well as by the efforts of two political parties: the PS and the Social Democrats (PPD, later PSD). The first phase was from April to September 1974. Provisional president General Antonio Spínola, whose 1974 book Portugal and the Future had helped prepare public opinion for the coup, met irresistible leftist pressures. After Spinola's efforts to avoid rapid decolonization of the African empire failed, he resigned in September 1974. During the second phase, from September 1974 to March 1975, radical military officers gained control, but a coup attempt by General Spínola and his supporters in Lisbon in March 1975 failed and Spínola fled to Spain.

   In the third phase of the Revolution, March-November 1975, a strong leftist reaction followed. Farm workers occupied and "nationalized" 1.1 million hectares of farmland in the Alentejo province, and radical military officers in the provisional government ordered the nationalization of Portuguese banks (foreign banks were exempted), utilities, and major industries, or about 60 percent of the economic system. There were power struggles among various political parties — a total of 50 emerged—and in the streets there was civil strife among labor, military, and law enforcement groups. A constituent assembly, elected on 25 April 1975, in Portugal's first free elections since 1926, drafted a democratic constitution. The Council of the Revolution (CR), briefly a revolutionary military watchdog committee, was entrenched as part of the government under the constitution, until a later revision. During the chaotic year of 1975, about 30 persons were killed in political frays while unstable provisional governments came and went. On 25 November 1975, moderate military forces led by Colonel Ramalho Eanes, who later was twice elected president of the republic (1976 and 1981), defeated radical, leftist military groups' revolutionary conspiracies.

   In the meantime, Portugal's scattered overseas empire experienced a precipitous and unprepared decolonization. One by one, the former colonies were granted and accepted independence—Guinea-Bissau (September 1974), Cape Verde Islands (July 1975), and Mozambique (July 1975). Portugal offered to turn over Macau to the People's Republic of China, but the offer was refused then and later negotiations led to the establishment of a formal decolonization or hand-over date of 1999. But in two former colonies, the process of decolonization had tragic results.

   In Angola, decolonization negotiations were greatly complicated by the fact that there were three rival nationalist movements in a struggle for power. The January 1975 Alvor Agreement signed by Portugal and these three parties was not effectively implemented. A bloody civil war broke out in Angola in the spring of 1975 and, when Portuguese armed forces withdrew and declared that Angola was independent on 11 November 1975, the bloodshed only increased. Meanwhile, most of the white Portuguese settlers from Angola and Mozambique fled during the course of 1975. Together with African refugees, more than 600,000 of these retornados ("returned ones") went by ship and air to Portugal and thousands more to Namibia, South Africa, Brazil, Canada, and the United States.

   The second major decolonization disaster was in Portugal's colony of East Timor in the Indonesian archipelago. Portugal's capacity to supervise and control a peaceful transition to independence in this isolated, neglected colony was limited by the strength of giant Indonesia, distance from Lisbon, and Portugal's revolutionary disorder and inability to defend Timor. In early December 1975, before Portugal granted formal independence and as one party, FRETILIN, unilaterally declared East Timor's independence, Indonesia's armed forces invaded, conquered, and annexed East Timor. Indonesian occupation encountered East Timorese resistance, and a heavy loss of life followed. The East Timor question remained a contentious international issue in the UN, as well as in Lisbon and Jakarta, for more than 20 years following Indonesia's invasion and annexation of the former colony of Portugal. Major changes occurred, beginning in 1998, after Indonesia underwent a political revolution and allowed a referendum in East Timor to decide that territory's political future in August 1999. Most East Timorese chose independence, but Indonesian forces resisted that verdict until

   UN intervention in September 1999. Following UN rule for several years, East Timor attained full independence on 20 May 2002.

   Consolidation of Democracy, 1976-2000

   After several free elections and record voter turnouts between 25 April 1975 and June 1976, civil war was averted and Portugal's second democratic republic began to stabilize. The MFA was dissolved, the military were returned to the barracks, and increasingly elected civilians took over the government of the country. The 1976 Constitution was revised several times beginning in 1982 and 1989, in order to reempha-size the principle of free enterprise in the economy while much of the large, nationalized sector was privatized. In June 1976, General Ram-alho Eanes was elected the first constitutional president of the republic (five-year term), and he appointed socialist leader Dr. Mário Soares as prime minister of the first constitutional government.

   From 1976 to 1985, Portugal's new system featured a weak economy and finances, labor unrest, and administrative and political instability. The difficult consolidation of democratic governance was eased in part by the strong currency and gold reserves inherited from the Estado Novo, but Lisbon seemed unable to cope with high unemployment, new debt, the complex impact of the refugees from Africa, world recession, and the agitation of political parties. Four major parties emerged from the maelstrom of 1974-75, except for the Communist Party, all newly founded. They were, from left to right, the Communists (PCP); the Socialists (PS), who managed to dominate governments and the legislature but not win a majority in the Assembly of the Republic; the Social Democrats (PSD); and the Christian Democrats (CDS). During this period, the annual growth rate was low (l-2 percent), and the nationalized sector of the economy stagnated.

   Enhanced economic growth, greater political stability, and more effective central government as of 1985, and especially 1987, were due to several developments. In 1977, Portugal applied for membership in the European Economic Community (EEC), now the European Union (EU) since 1993. In January 1986, with Spain, Portugal was granted membership, and economic and financial progress in the intervening years has been significantly influenced by the comparatively large investment, loans, technology, advice, and other assistance from the EEC. Low unemployment, high annual growth rates (5 percent), and moderate inflation have also been induced by the new political and administrative stability in Lisbon. Led by Prime Minister Cavaco Silva, an economist who was trained abroad, the PSD's strong organization, management, and electoral support since 1985 have assisted in encouraging economic recovery and development. In 1985, the PSD turned the PS out of office and won the general election, although they did not have an absolute majority of assembly seats. In 1986, Mário Soares was elected president of the republic, the first civilian to hold that office since the First Republic. In the elections of 1987 and 1991, however, the PSD was returned to power with clear majorities of over 50 percent of the vote.

   Although the PSD received 50.4 percent of the vote in the 1991 parliamentary elections and held a 42-seat majority in the Assembly of the Republic, the party began to lose public support following media revelations regarding corruption and complaints about Prime Minister Cavaco Silva's perceived arrogant leadership style. President Mário Soares voiced criticism of the PSD's seemingly untouchable majority and described a "tyranny of the majority." Economic growth slowed down. In the parliamentary elections of 1995 and the presidential election of 1996, the PSD's dominance ended for the time being. Prime Minister Antônio Guterres came to office when the PS won the October 1995 elections, and in the subsequent presidential contest, in January 1996, socialist Jorge Sampaio, the former mayor of Lisbon, was elected president of the republic, thus defeating Cavaco Silva's bid. Young and popular, Guterres moved the PS toward the center of the political spectrum. Under Guterres, the PS won the October 1999 parliamentary elections. The PS defeated the PSD but did not manage to win a clear, working majority of seats, and this made the PS dependent upon alliances with smaller parties, including the PCP.

   In the local elections in December 2001, the PSD's criticism of PS's heavy public spending allowed the PSD to take control of the key cities of Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra. Guterres resigned, and parliamentary elections were brought forward from 2004 to March 2002. The PSD won a narrow victory with 40 percent of the votes, and Jose Durão Barroso became prime minister. Having failed to win a majority of the seats in parliament forced the PSD to govern in coalition with the right-wing Popular Party (PP) led by Paulo Portas. Durão Barroso set about reducing government spending by cutting the budgets of local authorities, freezing civil service hiring, and reviving the economy by accelerating privatization of state-owned enterprises. These measures provoked a 24-hour strike by public-sector workers. Durão Barroso reacted with vows to press ahead with budget-cutting measures and imposed a wage freeze on all employees earning more than €1,000, which affected more than one-half of Portugal's work force.

   In June 2004, Durão Barroso was invited by Romano Prodi to succeed him as president of the European Commission. Durão Barroso accepted and resigned the prime ministership in July. Pedro Santana Lopes, the leader of the PSD, became prime minister. Already unpopular at the time of Durão Barroso's resignation, the PSD-led government became increasingly unpopular under Santana Lopes. A month-long delay in the start of the school year and confusion over his plan to cut taxes and raise public-sector salaries, eroded confidence even more. By November, Santana Lopes's government was so unpopular that President Jorge Sampaio was obliged to dissolve parliament and hold new elections, two years ahead of schedule.

   Parliamentary elections were held on 20 February 2005. The PS, which had promised the electorate disciplined and transparent governance, educational reform, the alleviation of poverty, and a boost in employment, won 45 percent of the vote and the majority of the seats in parliament. The leader of the PS, José Sôcrates became prime minister on 12 March 2005. In the regularly scheduled presidential elections held on 6 January 2006, the former leader of the PSD and prime minister, Aníbal Cavaco Silva, won a narrow victory and became president on 9 March 2006. With a mass protest, public teachers' strike, and street demonstrations in March 2008, Portugal's media, educational, and social systems experienced more severe pressures. With the spreading global recession beginning in September 2008, Portugal's economic and financial systems became more troubled.

    Contemporary Portugal

   Owing to its geographic location on the southwestern most edge of continental Europe, Portugal has been historically in but not of Europe. Almost from the beginning of its existence in the 12th century as an independent monarchy, Portugal turned its back on Europe and oriented itself toward the Atlantic Ocean. After carving out a Christian kingdom on the western portion of the Iberian peninsula, Portuguese kings gradually built and maintained a vast seaborne global empire that became central to the way Portugal understood its individuality as a nation-state. While the creation of this empire allows Portugal to claim an unusual number of "firsts" or distinctions in world and Western history, it also retarded Portugal's economic, social, and political development. It can be reasonably argued that the Revolution of 25 April 1974 was the most decisive event in Portugal's long history because it finally ended Portugal's oceanic mission and view of itself as an imperial power. After the 1974 Revolution, Portugal turned away from its global mission and vigorously reoriented itself toward Europe. Contemporary Portugal is now both in and of Europe.

   The turn toward Europe began immediately after 25 April 1974. Portugal granted independence to its African colonies in 1975. It was admitted to the European Council and took the first steps toward accession to the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1976. On 28 March 1977, the Portuguese government officially applied for EEC membership. Because of Portugal's economic and social backwardness, which would require vast sums of EEC money to overcome, negotiations for membership were long and difficult. Finally, a treaty of accession was signed on 12 June 1985. Portugal officially joined the EEC (the European Union [EU] since 1993) on 1 January 1986. Since becoming a full-fledged member of the EU, Portugal has been steadily overcoming the economic and social underdevelopment caused by its imperial past and is becoming more like the rest of Europe.

   Membership in the EU has speeded up the structural transformation of Portugal's economy, which actually began during the Estado Novo. Investments made by the Estado Novo in Portugal's economy began to shift employment out of the agricultural sector, which, in 1950, accounted for 50 percent of Portugal's economically active population. Today, only 10 percent of the economically active population is employed in the agricultural sector (the highest among EU member states); 30 percent in the industrial sector (also the highest among EU member states); and 60 percent in the service sector (the lowest among EU member states). The economically active population numbers about 5,000,000 employed, 56 percent of whom are women. Women workers are the majority of the workforce in the agricultural and service sectors (the highest among the EU member states). The expansion of the service sector has been primarily in health care and education. Portugal has had the lowest unemployment rates among EU member states, with the overall rate never being more than 10 percent of the active population. Since joining the EU, the number of employers increased from 2.6 percent to 5.8 percent of the active population; self-employed from 16 to 19 percent; and employees from 65 to 70 percent. Twenty-six percent of the employers are women. Unemployment tends to hit younger workers in industry and transportation, women employed in domestic service, workers on short-term contracts, and poorly educated workers. Salaried workers earn only 63 percent of the EU average, and hourly workers only one-third to one-half of that earned by their EU counterparts. Despite having had the second highest growth of gross national product (GNP) per inhabitant (after Ireland) among EU member states, the above data suggest that while much has been accomplished in terms of modernizing the Portuguese economy, much remains to be done to bring Portugal's economy up to the level of the "average" EU member state.

   Membership in the EU has also speeded up changes in Portuguese society. Over the last 30 years, coastalization and urbanization have intensified. Fully 50 percent of Portuguese live in the coastal urban conurbations of Lisbon, Oporto, Braga, Aveiro, Coimbra, Viseu, Évora, and Faro. The Portuguese population is one of the oldest among EU member states (17.3 percent are 65 years of age or older) thanks to a considerable increase in life expectancy at birth (77.87 years for the total population, 74.6 years for men, 81.36 years for women) and one of the lowest birthrates (10.59 births/1,000) in Europe. Family size averages 2.8 persons per household, with the strict nuclear family (one or two generations) in which both parents work being typical. Common law marriages, cohabitating couples, and single-parent households are more and more common. The divorce rate has also increased. "Youth Culture" has developed. The young have their own meeting places, leisure-time activities, and nightlife (bars, clubs, and discos).

   All Portuguese citizens, whether they have contributed or not, have a right to an old-age pension, invalidity benefits, widowed persons' pension, as well as payments for disabilities, children, unemployment, and large families. There is a national minimum wage (€385 per month), which is low by EU standards. The rapid aging of Portugal's population has changed the ratio of contributors to pensioners to 1.7, the lowest in the EU. This has created deficits in Portugal's social security fund.

   The adult literacy rate is about 92 percent. Illiteracy is still found among the elderly. Although universal compulsory education up to grade 9 was achieved in 1980, only 21.2 percent of the population aged 25-64 had undergone secondary education, compared to an EU average of 65.7 percent. Portugal's higher education system currently consists of 14 state universities and 14 private universities, 15 state polytechnic institutions, one Catholic university, and one military academy. All in all, Portugal spends a greater percentage of its state budget on education than most EU member states. Despite this high level of expenditure, the troubled Portuguese education system does not perform well. Early leaving and repetition rates are among the highest among EU member states.

   After the Revolution of 25 April 1974, Portugal created a National Health Service, which today consists of 221 hospitals and 512 medical centers employing 33,751 doctors and 41,799 nurses. Like its education system, Portugal's medical system is inefficient. There are long waiting lists for appointments with specialists and for surgical procedures.

   Structural changes in Portugal's economy and society mean that social life in Portugal is not too different from that in other EU member states. A mass consumption society has been created. Televisions, telephones, refrigerators, cars, music equipment, mobile phones, and personal computers are commonplace. Sixty percent of Portuguese households possess at least one automobile, and 65 percent of Portuguese own their own home. Portuguese citizens are more aware of their legal rights than ever before. This has resulted in a trebling of the number of legal proceeding since 1960 and an eight-fold increase in the number of lawyers. In general, Portuguese society has become more permissive and secular; the Catholic Church and the armed forces are much less influential than in the past. Portugal's population is also much more culturally, religiously, and ethnically diverse, a consequence of the coming to Portugal of hundreds of thousands of immigrants, mainly from former African colonies.

   Portuguese are becoming more cosmopolitan and sophisticated through the impact of world media, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. A prime case in point came in the summer and early fall of 1999, with the extraordinary events in East Timor and the massive Portuguese popular responses. An internationally monitored referendum in East Timor, Portugal's former colony in the Indonesian archipelago and under Indonesian occupation from late 1975 to summer 1999, resulted in a vote of 78.5 percent for rejecting integration with Indonesia and for independence. When Indonesian prointegration gangs, aided by the Indonesian military, responded to the referendum with widespread brutality and threatened to reverse the verdict of the referendum, there was a spontaneous popular outpouring of protest in the cities and towns of Portugal. An avalanche of Portuguese e-mail fell on leaders and groups in the UN and in certain countries around the world as Portugal's diplomats, perhaps to compensate for the weak initial response to Indonesian armed aggression in 1975, called for the protection of East Timor as an independent state and for UN intervention to thwart Indonesian action. Using global communications networks, the Portuguese were able to mobilize UN and world public opinion against Indonesian actions and aided the eventual independence of East Timor on 20 May 2002.

   From the Revolution of 25 April 1974 until the 1990s, Portugal had a large number of political parties, one of the largest Communist parties in western Europe, frequent elections, and endemic cabinet instability. Since the 1990s, the number of political parties has been dramatically reduced and cabinet stability increased. Gradually, the Portuguese electorate has concentrated around two larger parties, the right-of-center Social Democrats (PSD) and the left-of-center Socialist (PS). In the 1980s, these two parties together garnered 65 percent of the vote and 70 percent of the seats in parliament. In 2005, these percentages had risen to 74 percent and 85 percent, respectively. In effect, Portugal is currently a two-party dominant system in which the two largest parties — PS and PSD—alternate in and out of power, not unlike the rotation of the two main political parties (the Regenerators and the Historicals) during the last decades (1850s to 1880s) of the liberal constitutional monarchy. As Portugal's democracy has consolidated, turnout rates for the eligible electorate have declined. In the 1970s, turnout was 85 percent. In Portugal's most recent parliamentary election (2005), turnout had fallen to 65 percent of the eligible electorate.

   Portugal has benefited greatly from membership in the EU, and whatever doubts remain about the price paid for membership, no Portuguese government in the near future can afford to sever this connection. The vast majority of Portuguese citizens see membership in the EU as a "good thing" and strongly believe that Portugal has benefited from membership. Only the Communist Party opposed membership because it reduces national sovereignty, serves the interests of capitalists not workers, and suffers from a democratic deficit. Despite the high level of support for the EU, Portuguese voters are increasingly not voting in elections for the European Parliament, however. Turnout for European Parliament elections fell from 40 percent of the eligible electorate in the 1999 elections to 38 percent in the 2004 elections.

   In sum, Portugal's turn toward Europe has done much to overcome its backwardness. However, despite the economic, social, and political progress made since 1986, Portugal has a long way to go before it can claim to be on a par with the level found even in Spain, much less the rest of western Europe. As Portugal struggles to move from underde-velopment, especially in the rural areas away from the coast, it must keep in mind the perils of too rapid modern development, which could damage two of its most precious assets: its scenery and environment. The growth and future prosperity of the economy will depend on the degree to which the government and the private sector will remain stewards of clean air, soil, water, and other finite resources on which the tourism industry depends and on which Portugal's world image as a unique place to visit rests. Currently, Portugal is investing heavily in renewable energy from solar, wind, and wave power in order to account for about 50 percent of its electricity needs by 2010. Portugal opened the world's largest solar power plant and the world's first commercial wave power farm in 2006.

   An American documentary film on Portugal produced in the 1970s described this little country as having "a Past in Search of a Future." In the years after the Revolution of 25 April 1974, it could be said that Portugal is now living in "a Present in Search of a Future." Increasingly, that future lies in Europe as an active and productive member of the EU.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Historical Portugal
7 education

[ˌedʒʊ'keɪʃn] 1.
nome

1) (training) educazione f., istruzione f.; (in health, road safety) informazione f.

2) (formal schooling) studi m.pl., istruzione f.

to continue one's education — continuare gli studi

to have had a university o college education avere ricevuto un'istruzione superiore; he has had little education — non è molto colto

3) (national system) istruzione f., insegnamento m.

primary, secondary education — scuola primaria, secondaria

4) univ. pedagogia f., scienze f.pl. della formazione
2.
modificatore [budget, spending] per l'istruzione; [ crisis] dell'insegnamento; [ method] di insegnamento; [Minister, Ministry] della pubblica istruzione

education standards — livelli di istruzione

the education system in Italy — il sistema educativo italiano

* * *

noun (instruction and teaching, especially of children and young people in schools, universities etc: His lack of education prevented him from getting a good job.) istruzione

* * *
[ˌedʒʊ'keɪʃn] 1.
nome

1) (training) educazione f., istruzione f.; (in health, road safety) informazione f.

2) (formal schooling) studi m.pl., istruzione f.

to continue one's education — continuare gli studi

to have had a university o college education avere ricevuto un'istruzione superiore; he has had little education — non è molto colto

3) (national system) istruzione f., insegnamento m.

primary, secondary education — scuola primaria, secondaria

4) univ. pedagogia f., scienze f.pl. della formazione
2.
modificatore [budget, spending] per l'istruzione; [ crisis] dell'insegnamento; [ method] di insegnamento; [Minister, Ministry] della pubblica istruzione

education standards — livelli di istruzione

the education system in Italy — il sistema educativo italiano

English-Italian dictionary > education
8 deepen

1. transitive verb
1) tiefer machen; vertiefen

2) (increase, intensify) vertiefen; intensivieren [Farbe]
2. intransitive verb
1) tiefer werden

2) (intensify) sich vertiefen

* * *

verb

1) (to make or become deeper: He deepened the hole.) vertiefen

2) (to increase: His troubles were deepening.) verstärken

* * *

deep·en

[ˈdi:p^ən]

I. vt

▪ to \deepen sth

1. (make deeper) channel, hole etw tiefer machen

2. (intensify) feelings etw vertiefen

to \deepen one's knowledge sein Wissen vertiefen

II. vi

1. water tiefer werden

2. (intensify) feelings, understanding sich akk vertiefen; budget deficit, economic crisis, recession sich akk verschärfen

3. tone, voice tiefer werden

4. (become darker) colour intensiver [o dunkler] werden

* * *
['diːpən]
1. vt (lit, fig)
vertiefen; concern, sorrow vergrößern, vertiefen; love, friendship vertiefen, verstärken; colour dunkler machen; mystery vergrößern; crisis, recession verschärfen; sound tiefer machen
2. vi (lit, fig)
sich vergrößern, tiefer werden; (sorrow, concern, interest) zunehmen, größer werden; (colour, sound, voice) tiefer werden; (mystery) größer werden; (rift, divisions) sich vertiefen; (crisis, recession) sich verschärfen
* * *

deepen [ˈdiːpən]

A v/t

1. tief(er) machen

2. vertiefen

3. verbreitern

4. fig vertiefen, verstärken, steigern

5. Farben dunkler machen, vertiefen

6. Töne tiefer stimmen

7. die Stimme senken

B v/i

1. tiefer werden, sich vertiefen

2. fig sich vertiefen, sich steigern, stärker werden

3. dunkler werden, (nach-)dunkeln (Farbe)

* * *
1. transitive verb
1) tiefer machen; vertiefen

2) (increase, intensify) vertiefen; intensivieren [Farbe]
2. intransitive verb
1) tiefer werden

2) (intensify) sich vertiefen

* * *

v.

stärker werden ausdr.

vertiefen v.

English-german dictionary > deepen
9 push

push [pʊʃ]

poussée ⇒ 1 (a) mot d'encouragement ⇒ 1 (b) effort ⇒ 1 (e) pousser ⇒ 2 (a), 2 (d), 3 (a) enfoncer ⇒ 2 (a) appuyer (sur) ⇒ 2 (b), 3 (b) forcer ⇒ 2 (d) prôner ⇒ 2 (e) avancer ⇒ 3 (c)

1 noun

(a) (shove) poussée f;

∎ to give sb/sth a push pousser qn/qch;

∎ the door opens at the push of a button il suffit d'appuyer sur un bouton pour que la porte s'ouvre;

∎ he expects these things to happen at the push of a button il s'attend à ce que ça se fasse sur commande

(b) (encouragement) mot m d'encouragement;

∎ he'll do it, but he needs a little push il le fera, mais il a besoin qu'on le pousse un peu;

∎ he just needs a push in the right direction il a juste besoin qu'on le mette sur la bonne voie

(c) British familiar

∎ to give sb the push (from job) virer qn; (in relationship) plaquer qn;

∎ he got the push (from job) il s'est fait virer; (from relationship) il s'est fait plaquer

(d) familiar (critical moment)

∎ when it comes to the push, when push comes to shove au moment critique ou crucial^□ ;

∎ I can lend you the money if it comes to the push au pire, je pourrai vous prêter l'argent^□ ;

∎ if it comes to the push, he'll choose Sarah not Gillian s'il fallait qu'il choisisse, il prendrait Sarah et pas Gillian^□ ;

∎ at a push à la limite^□ ;

∎ I can do it at a push je peux le faire si c'est vraiment nécessaire^□

(e) (effort) effort m, coup m de collier; (campaign) campagne f;

∎ the final push for the summit le dernier effort pour atteindre le sommet;

∎ to make a push for change lutter pour le changement;

∎ the club's push for promotion les efforts soutenus du club pour être promu;

∎ a sales push une campagne de promotion des ventes;

∎ the push towards protectionism is gathering strength la tendance au protectionnisme se renforce

(f) Military (advance) poussée f;

∎ the platoon made a push to capture the airfield la section a fait une poussée pour s'emparer de l'aérodrome

(g) (drive, dynamism) dynamisme m;

∎ he has a lot of push il est très dynamique

(h) (billiards) coup m queuté

(i) Australian familiar (gang) bande f, clique f

2 transitive verb

(a) (shove, propel) pousser; (thrust) enfoncer;

∎ she pushed the door open/shut elle ouvrit/ferma la porte (en la poussant);

∎ he pushed her onto the chair/into the room il la poussa sur la chaise/(pour la faire entrer) dans la pièce;

∎ to push sb into a corner acculer qn;

∎ to push sb out of the way écarter qn;

∎ don't push (me)! ne (me) poussez pas!, ne (me) bousculez pas!;

∎ a man was pushed out of the window quelqu'un a poussé un homme par la fenêtre;

∎ figurative did he fall or was he pushed? il est tombé ou on l'a poussé?;

∎ did he leave or was he pushed? (from job) il est parti de lui-même ou on l'y a poussé?;

∎ push all that mess under the bed pousse tout ce bazar sous le lit;

∎ he pushed the branches apart il a écarté les branches;

∎ she pushed her way to the bar elle se fraya un chemin jusqu'au bar;

∎ push one tube into the other enfoncez un tube dans l'autre;

∎ he pushed a gun into my ribs il m'enfonça un revolver dans les côtes;

∎ she pushed the cork into the bottle elle enfonça le bouchon dans la bouteille;

∎ he pushed his hands into his pockets il enfonça ses mains dans ses poches;

∎ to push an attack home pousser à fond une attaque;

∎ to push home one's advantage tirer le meilleur parti possible de son avantage

(b) (press → doorbell, pedal, button) appuyer sur

(c) (cause to move in specified direction)

∎ it will push inflation upwards cela va relancer l'inflation;

∎ the crisis is pushing the country towards chaos la crise entraîne le pays vers le chaos;

∎ he is pushing the party to the right il fait glisser le parti vers la droite;

∎ buying the car will push us even further into debt en achetant cette voiture, nous allons nous endetter encore plus;

∎ economic conditions have pushed the peasants off the land les paysans ont été chassés des campagnes par les conditions économiques

(d) (pressurize) pousser; (force) forcer, obliger, contraindre;

∎ to push sb to do sth pousser qn à faire qch;

∎ to push sb into doing sth forcer ou obliger qn à faire qch;

∎ his parents pushed him to become a doctor ses parents l'ont poussé à devenir médecin;

∎ her teacher pushed her in Latin son professeur l'a poussée à travailler en latin;

∎ he needs pushing il faut toujours le pousser;

∎ their coach doesn't push them hard enough leur entraîneur ne les pousse pas assez;

∎ I like to push myself hard j'aime me donner à fond;

∎ he pushed the car to its limits il a poussé la voiture à la limite de ses possibilités;

∎ you're still weak, so don't push yourself tu es encore faible, vas-y doucement;

∎ he won't do it if he's pushed too hard il ne le fera pas si l'on insiste trop;

∎ don't push him too far ne le poussez pas à bout;

∎ I won't be pushed, I need time to think it over! je ne me laisserai pas bousculer, j'ai besoin de temps pour y réfléchir!;

∎ when I pushed her, she admitted it quand j'ai insisté, elle a avoué;

∎ he keeps pushing me for the rent il me relance sans cesse au sujet du loyer;

∎ familiar don't push your luck! n'exagère pas!

(e) (advocate, argue for → idea, method) prôner, préconiser; (promote → product) promouvoir;

∎ he's trying to push his own point of view il essaie d'imposer son point de vue personnel;

∎ the mayor is pushing his town as the best site for the conference le maire présente sa ville comme le meilleur endroit pour tenir la conférence;

∎ the government is pushing the idea of people setting up small businesses le gouvernement favorise la création de petites entreprises;

∎ he's pushing himself as a compromise candidate il se présente comme le candidat du compromis;

∎ there are so many adverts pushing beauty products il y a tellement de publicités pour des produits de beauté

(f) (stretch, exaggerate → argument, case) présenter avec insistance, insister sur;

∎ if we push the comparison a little further si on pousse la comparaison un peu plus loin;

∎ familiar that's pushing it a bit! (going too far) c'est un peu exagéré!;

∎ I'll try to arrive by 7 p.m. but it's pushing it a bit je tâcherai d'arriver à 19 heures, mais ça va être juste^□

(g) familiar (sell → drugs) revendre^□, dealer

(h) familiar (approach) friser;

∎ to be pushing thirty friser la trentaine;

∎ the car was pushing 100 mph ≃ la voiture frisait les 160

(i) Stock Exchange

∎ to push shares placer des valeurs douteuses

3 intransitive verb

(a) (shove) pousser;

∎ to push against sth pousser qch;

∎ no pushing please! ne poussez pas, s'il vous plaît!;

∎ push (on door) poussez;

∎ people were pushing to get in les gens se bousculaient pour entrer;

∎ he pushed through the crowd to the bar il s'est frayé un chemin jusqu'au bar à travers la foule;

∎ somebody pushed past me quelqu'un est passé en me bousculant;

∎ we'll have to get out and push il va falloir descendre pousser

(b) (press → on button, bell, knob) appuyer

(c) (advance) avancer;

∎ the army pushed towards the border l'armée a avancé jusqu'à la frontière;

∎ the country is pushing towards democracy le pays évolue vers la démocratie

(d) (extend → path, fence) s'étendre;

∎ the road pushed deep into the hills la route s'enfonçait dans les collines

►► push button bouton-poussoir m;

Commerce push money prime f au vendeur;

Marketing push strategy stratégie f push;

push stroke (in billiards, snooker) coup m queuté;

Computing push technology technologie f du push de données

➲ push about separable transitive verb

(a) (physically) malmener;

∎ he didn't hit her but he was pushing her about il ne l'a pas frappée mais il la malmenait

(b) familiar (bully) marcher sur les pieds à;

∎ I won't be pushed about! je ne vais pas me laisser marcher sur les pieds!

➲ push ahead intransitive verb

(a) (continue) continuer, persévérer;

∎ to push ahead with the work poursuivre les travaux;

∎ they decided to push ahead with the plans to extend the school ils ont décidé d'activer les projets d'extension de l'école

(b) (advance) avancer, progresser ( with dans);

∎ research is pushing ahead les recherches avancent

➲ push along

1 separable transitive verb

(trolley, pram) pousser (devant soi)

2 intransitive verb

familiar (leave) filer;

∎ I'll be pushing along now bon, il est temps que je file

➲ push around = push about

➲ push aside separable transitive verb

(a) (objects) pousser, écarter

(b) (reject → proposal) écarter, rejeter;

∎ issues which have been pushed aside des questions qui ont été volontairement écartées;

∎ you can't just push aside the problem like that vous ne pouvez pas faire comme si le problème n'existait pas;

∎ I pushed my doubts aside je n'ai pas tenu compte de mes doutes

➲ push away separable transitive verb

repousser;

∎ she pushed my hand away elle repoussa ma main;

∎ he pushed his chair away from the fire il éloigna sa chaise du feu

➲ push back separable transitive verb

(a) (person) repousser (en arrière); (crowd) faire reculer, refouler; (curtains) écarter; (bedclothes) rejeter, repousser;

∎ he pushed me back from the door il m'a éloigné de la porte

(b) (repulse → troops) repousser;

∎ the enemy was pushed back ten miles/to the river l'ennemi a été repoussé d'une quinzaine de kilomètres/jusqu'à la rivière

(c) (postpone) repousser;

∎ the meeting has been pushed back to Friday la réunion a été repoussée à vendredi

➲ push down

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (lever, handle, switch) abaisser; (pedal) appuyer sur;

∎ she pushed the clothes down in the bag elle a tassé les vêtements dans le sac;

∎ he pushed down the lid but it wouldn't shut il a appuyé sur le couvercle mais il ne voulait pas fermer

(b) (knock over) renverser, faire tomber

(c) (prices) faire baisser

2 intransitive verb

(pedal, lever) s'abaisser; (person → on pedal, lever) appuyer (on sur)

➲ push for inseparable transitive verb

(argue for) demander; (campaign for) faire campagne pour;

∎ some ministers were pushing for more monetarist policies certains ministres demandaient une politique plus monétariste;

∎ to push for a 35-hour week demander la semaine de 35 heures;

∎ I'm going to push for a bigger budget je vais faire tout ce qui est en mon pouvoir pour obtenir un budget plus important;

∎ the unions are pushing for 10 percent les syndicats font pression pour obtenir 10 pour cent;

∎ to push for a decision exiger qu'une décision soit prise

➲ push forward

1 separable transitive verb

pousser (en avant);

∎ he was pushed forward by the crowd la foule l'a poussé en avant;

∎ figurative to push oneself forward se mettre en avant, se faire valoir

2 intransitive verb

(a) (advance → person, car) avancer; (→ crowd, herd) se presser en avant

(b) = push ahead

➲ push in

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (drawer) pousser; (electric plug, key) enfoncer, introduire; (disk) insérer; (knife, stake, spade) enfoncer; (button, switch) appuyer sur;

∎ push the button right in appuyer à fond sur le bouton

(b) (person)

∎ they pushed me in the water ils m'ont poussé dans l'eau;

∎ he opened the door and pushed me in il ouvrit la porte et me poussa à l'intérieur

(c) (break down → panel, cardboard) enfoncer;

∎ the door had been pushed in la porte avait été enfoncée

2 intransitive verb

∎ (in queue) to push in ahead of sb doubler qn;

∎ no pushing in! faites la queue!;

∎ she's always pushing in where she's not wanted il faut toujours qu'elle s'immisce ou s'impose là où on ne veut pas d'elle

➲ push off

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (knock off) faire tomber;

∎ they pushed me off the ladder ils m'ont fait tomber de l'échelle;

∎ I pushed him off the chair je l'ai fait tomber de sa chaise

(b) (boat) déborder

(c) (remove) pousser;

∎ push the lid off soulève le couvercle;

∎ they tried to push her (car) off the road ils ont essayé de faire sortir sa voiture de la route;

∎ to push sb off a committee exclure ou écarter qn d'un comité

2 intransitive verb

(a) familiar (go away) filer, mettre les bouts;

∎ time for me to push off il faut que je file;

∎ push off! de l'air!, dégage!

(b) (in boat) pousser au large

➲ push on

1 separable transitive verb

∎ (urge on) to push sb on to do sth pousser ou inciter qn à faire qch

2 intransitive verb

(on journey → set off again) reprendre la route, se remettre en route; (→ continue) poursuivre ou continuer son chemin; (keep working) continuer, persévérer;

∎ let's push on to Dundee poussons jusqu'à Dundee;

∎ they're pushing on with the reforms ils poursuivent leurs efforts pour faire passer les réformes

➲ push out

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (person, object) pousser dehors;

∎ they pushed the car out of the mud ils ont désembourbé la voiture en la poussant;

∎ the bed had been pushed out from the wall le lit avait été écarté du mur;

∎ to push one's way out se frayer un chemin vers la sortie;

∎ to push the boat out déborder l'embarcation; figurative faire la fête

(b) (stick out → hand, leg) tendre

(c) (grow → roots, shoots) faire, produire

(d) (oust) évincer; (dismiss from job) mettre à la porte;

∎ we've been pushed out of the Japanese market nous avons été évincés du marché japonais

(e) familiar (churn out → articles, books) produire à la chaîne^□, pondre en série^□

2 intransitive verb

(appear → roots, leaves) pousser; (→ snowdrops, tulips) pointer

➲ push over separable transitive verb

(a) (pass → across table, floor) pousser;

∎ he pushed the book over to me il poussa le livre vers moi

(b) (knock over) faire tomber, renverser; (from ledge, bridge) pousser, faire tomber;

∎ many cars had been pushed over onto their sides beaucoup de voitures avaient été renversées sur le côté

➲ push through

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (project, decision) faire accepter; (deal) conclure; (bill, budget) réussir à faire voter ou passer

(b) (thrust → needle) passer;

∎ she eventually managed to push her way through (the crowd) elle réussit finalement à se frayer un chemin (à travers la foule)

2 intransitive verb

(car, person) se frayer un chemin; (troops, army) avancer

➲ push to separable transitive verb

(door, drawer) fermer

➲ push up separable transitive verb

(a) (push upwards → handle, lever) remonter, relever; (→ sleeves) remonter, retrousser;

∎ she pushed herself up onto her feet elle se releva;

∎ familiar he's pushing up (the) daisies il mange les pissenlits par la racine

(b) (increase → taxes, sales, demand) augmenter; (→ prices, costs, statistics) faire monter;

∎ the effect will be to push interest rates up cela aura pour effet de faire grimper les taux d'intérêt

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > push
10 strain

I
1. strein verb
1) (to exert oneself or a part of the body to the greatest possible extent: They strained at the door, trying to pull it open; He strained to reach the rope.) estirar, tensar

2) (to injure (a muscle etc) through too much use, exertion etc: He has strained a muscle in his leg; You'll strain your eyes by reading in such a poor light.) torcerse, hacerse un esguince, hacerse daño (en), forzar

3) (to force or stretch (too far): The constant interruptions were straining his patience.) poner a prueba, abusar

4) (to put (eg a mixture) through a sieve etc in order to separate solid matter from liquid: She strained the coffee.) colar, escurrir

2. noun
1) (force exerted; Can nylon ropes take more strain than the old kind of rope?) tensión, presión

2) ((something, eg too much work etc, that causes) a state of anxiety and fatigue: The strain of nursing her dying husband was too much for her; to suffer from strain.) tensión, estrés

3) ((an) injury especially to a muscle caused by too much exertion: muscular strain.) torcedura, esguince

4) (too great a demand: These constant delays are a strain on our patience.) presión

•

- strained
- strainer
- strain off
II strein noun
1) (a kind or breed (of animals, plants etc): a new strain of cattle.)

2) (a tendency in a person's character: I'm sure there's a strain of madness in her.)

3) ((often in plural) (the sound of) a tune: I heard the strains of a hymn coming from the church.)

strain¹ n tensión

strain and stress tensión y estrés

strain² vb

1. forzar

I had to strain my eyes to see it tuve que forzar la vista para verlo

2. lesionarse / torcer

he strained his back lifting the stone se lesionó la espalda al levantar la piedra

3. filtrar / colar

you have to strain the tea before pouring it hay que filtrar el té antes de servirlo

strain

tr[streɪn]

noun

1 SMALLPHYSICS/SMALL (tension) tensión nombre femenino; (pressure) presión nombre femenino; (weight) peso

■ the rope broke under the strain la cuerda se rompió debido a la tensión

■ breaking strain tensión máxima

2 (stress, pressure) tensión nombre femenino, estrés nombre masculino; (effort) esfuerzo; (exhaustion) agotamiento

■ she's been under a lot of strain lately ha estado sometida a muchas tensiones últimamente

■ the move put a lot of strain on them la mudanza los sometió a muchas tensiones

■ I find it a constant strain me resulta un esfuerzo continuo

■ mental strain tensión nerviosa

3 (tension) tirantez nombre femenino, tensión nombre femenino

■ the latest crisis has put more strain on Franco-Spanish relations la última crisis ha aumentado la tirantez en las relaciones francoespañolas

4 SMALLMEDICINE/SMALL torcedura, esguince nombre masculino

transitive verb

1 (stretch) estirar, tensar

2 (damage, weaken - muscle) torcer(se), hacerse un esguince en; (- back) hacerse daño en; (- voice, eyes) forzar; (ears) aguzar; (- heart) cansar

■ I strained my back me hice daño en la espalda

■ she strained her ears to hear aguzó el oído para escuchar

3 (stretch - patience, nerves, credulity) poner a prueba; (- resources) estirar al máximo; (- relations) someter a demasiada tensión, crear tirantez en

■ it strained my patience puso a prueba mi paciencia

■ he strained his authority abusó de su autoridad

4 (filter - liquid) colar; (- vegetables, rice) escurrir

intransitive verb

1 (make great efforts) esforzarse, hacer un gran esfuerzo

plural noun strains

1 SMALLMUSIC/SMALL son m sing, compás m sing

\

SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL

to strain at the leash tirar de la correa

to strain oneself esforzarse

■ don't strain yourself! ¡no te esfuerces!

————————

strain

tr[streɪn]

noun

1 (race, breed) raza; (descent) linaje nombre masculino; (of plant, virus) cepa

2 (streak) vena

■ a strain of madness una vena de loco

strain ['streɪn] vt

1) exert: forzar (la vista, la voz)

to strain oneself: hacer un gran esfuerzo

2) filter: colar, filtrar

3) injure: lastimarse, hacerse daño en

to strain a muscle: sufrir un esguince

strain n

1) lineage: linaje m, abolengo m

2) streak, trace: veta f

3) variety: tipo m, variedad f

4) stress: tensión f, presión f

5) sprain: esguince m, torcedura f (del tobillo, etc.)

6) strains npl

tune: melodía f, acordes mpl, compases fpl

strain

n.

• agotamiento nervioso s.m.

• deformación s.f.

• duelo s.m.

• esfuerzo muy grande s.m.

• linaje s.m.

• raza s.f.

• ribete s.m.

• tensión s.f.

• tirantez s.f.

v.

• cerner v.

• colar v.

• estirar v.

• fatigar v.

• forzar v.

• pujar v.

• torcer v.

• trascolar v.

streɪn
I

noun

1) u c ( tension) tensión f; ( pressure) presión f

the rope snapped under the strain — la cuerda se rompió debido a la tensión a la que estaba sometida

it puts a strain on your spine — ejerce presión sobre la columna vertebral

the incident put a strain on Franco-German relations — las relaciones franco-alemanas se volvieron tirantes a raíz del incidente

she's been under great o a lot of strain — ha estado pasando una época de mucha tensión or de mucho estrés

2) c u ( Med) (resulting from wrench, twist) torcedura f; ( on a muscle) esguince m

3) strains pl ( tune)

the strains of a flute could be heard in the distance — se oía una flauta a lo lejos

4)

a) c ( type - of plant) variedad f; (- of virus) cepa f; (- of animal) raza f

b) ( streak) (no pl) veta f

II
1.

transitive verb

1) ( exert)

to strain one's eyes/voice — forzar* la vista/voz

to strain one's ears — aguzar* el oído

he strained every muscle to lift the weight — usó todas sus fuerzas para levantar el peso

2)

a) ( overburden) \<\<beam/support\>\> ejercer* demasiada presión sobre

b) ( injure)

to strain one's back — hacerse* daño en la espalda

to strain a muscle — hacerse* un esguince

c) (overtax, stretch) \<\<relations\>\> someter a demasiada tensión, volver* tenso or tirante; \<\<credulity/patience\>\> poner* a prueba

3) ( filter) filtrar; ( Culin) colar*; \<\<vegetables/rice\>\> escurrir

strain the lumps from the sauce with a sieve — pase la salsa por un tamiz para eliminar los grumos

2.

v refl

to strain oneself — hacerse* daño

don't strain yourself — (iro) no te vayas a herniar (iró)

3.

vi

the porters strained under the load — los mozos iban agobiados por la carga

to strain AT something — tirar de algo

to strain to + INF — hacer* un gran esfuerzo para + inf

I [streɪn]
1. N

1) (=physical pressure) (on rope, cable) tensión f ; (on beam, bridge, structure) presión f

the strain on a rope — la tensión de una cuerda

• this puts a strain on the cable — esto tensa el cable

that puts a great strain on the beam — esto pone mucha presión sobre la viga

• to take the strain — (lit) aguantar el peso

• to take the strain off — [+ rope, cable] disminuir la tensión de; [+ beam, bridge, structure] disminuir la presión sobre

• to break under the strain — [rope, cable] romperse debido a la tensión

to collapse under the strain — [bridge, ceiling] venirse abajo debido a la presión

2) (fig) (=burden) carga f ; (=pressure) presión f ; (=stress) tensión f

I found it a strain being totally responsible for the child — me suponía una carga llevar toda la responsabilidad del niño yo solo

it was a strain on the economy/his purse — suponía una carga para la economía/su bolsillo

the strains on the economy — las presiones sobre la economía

the strains of modern life — las tensiones de la vida moderna

• mental strain — cansancio m mental

• to put a strain on — [+ resources] suponer una carga para; [+ system] forzar al límite; [+ relationship] crear tirantez or tensiones en

it put a great strain on their friendship — creó mucha tirantez en su amistad

his illness has put a terrible strain on the family — su enfermedad ha creado mucha tensión or estrés para la familia

• he has been under a great deal of strain — ha estado sometido a mucha presión
stress
3) (=effort) esfuerzo m

the strain of climbing the stairs — el esfuerzo de subir las escaleras

4) (Physiol)

a) (=injury) (from pull) esguince m ; (involving twist) esguince m, torcedura f

back strain — torcedura de espalda

muscle strain — esguince muscular

b) (=wear) (on eyes, heart) esfuerzo m

• he knew tennis put a strain on his heart — sabía que el tenis le sometía el corazón a un esfuerzo or le forzaba el corazón
eyestrain, repetitive
5) strains liter (=sound) compases mpl

we could hear the gentle strains of a Haydn quartet — oíamos los suaves compases de un cuarteto de Haydn

the bride came in to the strains of the wedding march — la novia entró al son or a los compases de la marcha nupcial

2. VT

1) (=stretch) (beyond reasonable limits) [+ system] forzar al límite; [+ friendship, relationship, marriage] crear tensiones en, crear tirantez en; [+ resources, budget] suponer una carga para; [+ patience] poner a prueba

• the demands of the welfare state are straining public finances to the limit — las exigencias del estado de bienestar están resultando una carga excesiva para las arcas públicas

• to strain relations with sb — tensar las relaciones con algn

2) (=damage, tire) [+ back] dañar(se), hacerse daño en; [+ eyes] cansar

to strain a muscle — hacerse un esguince

to strain o.s.: you shouldn't strain yourself — no deberías hacer mucha fuerza

he strained himself lifting something — se hizo daño levantando algo

don't strain yourself! — iro ¡no te vayas a quebrar or herniar!

3) (=make an effort with) [+ voice, eyes] forzar

to strain one's ears to hear sth — aguzar el oído para oír algo

to strain every nerve or sinew to do sth — esforzarse mucho por hacer algo, hacer grandes esfuerzos por hacer algo

4) (=filter) (Chem) filtrar; (Culin) [+ gravy, soup, custard] colar; [+ vegetables] escurrir

• to strain sth into a bowl — colar algo en un cuenco

• strain the mixture through a sieve — pase la mezcla por un tamiz

3.

VI (=make an effort)

to strain to do sth — esforzarse por hacer algo

he strained to hear what she was saying — se esforzaba por oír lo que decía

• he strained against the bonds that held him — liter hacía esfuerzos para soltarse de las cadenas que lo retenían

• to strain at sth — tirar de algo

to strain at the leash — [dog] tirar de la correa; (fig) saltar de impaciencia

• to strain under a weight — ir agobiado por un peso

- strain off

II

[streɪn]
N
1) (=breed) (of animal) raza f ; (of plant) variedad f ; (of virus) tipo m

every year new strains of flu develop — cada año aparecen nuevos tipos de gripe

2) (=streak, element) vena f

there is a strain of madness in the family — tienen vena de locos en la familia

there is a strain of cynicism in her writing — hay cierta vena de cinismo en sus escritos

* * *
[streɪn]
I

noun

1) u c ( tension) tensión f; ( pressure) presión f

the rope snapped under the strain — la cuerda se rompió debido a la tensión a la que estaba sometida

it puts a strain on your spine — ejerce presión sobre la columna vertebral

the incident put a strain on Franco-German relations — las relaciones franco-alemanas se volvieron tirantes a raíz del incidente

she's been under great o a lot of strain — ha estado pasando una época de mucha tensión or de mucho estrés

2) c u ( Med) (resulting from wrench, twist) torcedura f; ( on a muscle) esguince m

3) strains pl ( tune)

the strains of a flute could be heard in the distance — se oía una flauta a lo lejos

4)

a) c ( type - of plant) variedad f; (- of virus) cepa f; (- of animal) raza f

b) ( streak) (no pl) veta f

II
1.

transitive verb

1) ( exert)

to strain one's eyes/voice — forzar* la vista/voz

to strain one's ears — aguzar* el oído

he strained every muscle to lift the weight — usó todas sus fuerzas para levantar el peso

2)

a) ( overburden) \<\<beam/support\>\> ejercer* demasiada presión sobre

b) ( injure)

to strain one's back — hacerse* daño en la espalda

to strain a muscle — hacerse* un esguince

c) (overtax, stretch) \<\<relations\>\> someter a demasiada tensión, volver* tenso or tirante; \<\<credulity/patience\>\> poner* a prueba

3) ( filter) filtrar; ( Culin) colar*; \<\<vegetables/rice\>\> escurrir

strain the lumps from the sauce with a sieve — pase la salsa por un tamiz para eliminar los grumos

2.

v refl

to strain oneself — hacerse* daño

don't strain yourself — (iro) no te vayas a herniar (iró)

3.

vi

the porters strained under the load — los mozos iban agobiados por la carga

to strain AT something — tirar de algo

to strain to + INF — hacer* un gran esfuerzo para + inf

English-spanish dictionary > strain
11 energy

noun

1) (vigour) Energie, die; (active operation) Kraft, die

save your energy! — schone deine Kräfte!

I've no energy left — ich habe keine Energie mehr

2) in pl. (individual's powers) Kraft, die

3) (Phys.) Energie, die

sources of energy — Energiequellen

* * *
['enə‹i]
plural - energies; noun

1) (the ability to act, or the habit of acting, strongly and vigorously: He has amazing energy for his age; That child has too much energy; I must devote my energies to gardening today.) die Energie

2) (the power, eg of electricity, of doing work: electrical energy; nuclear energy.) die Energie

•

- academic.ru/24293/energetic">energetic
- energetically
* * *

en·er·gy

[ˈenəʤi, AM ˈenɚ-]

n

1. no pl (vigour) Energie f, Kraft f

I haven't got the \energy to go out tonight ich bin heute zu schlapp, um auszugehen

to conserve one's \energy seine Kräfte schonen, mit seinen Kräften haushalten

to be bursting [or brimming] with \energy vor Energie nur so sprühen

to be full of \energy voller Energie stecken

2. (totality of individual's power) Tatkraft f, Energie f

to channel [or direct] [all] one's energies into sth [all] seine Kräfte auf etw akk konzentrieren, seine Energie in etw akk reinstecken

to concentrate one's energies on sth all seine Energie für etw akk aufwenden

3. SCI Energie f

\energy crisis Energiekrise f

sources of \energy Energiequellen pl

* * *
['enədZɪ]
n
Energie f
he put his speech over with a lot of energy — er hielt seine Rede mit viel Schwung

chocolate gives you energy — Schokolade gibt neue Energie

to concentrate one's energies on doing sth — seine ganze Kraft dafür aufbieten, etw zu tun

to devote all one's energies to sth — seine ganze Energie or Kraft für etw einsetzen

I haven't the energy — mir fehlt die Energie dazu

to conserve one's energies — mit seinen Kräften haushalten or Haus halten or sparsam umgehen

to save one's energy for sth — seine Kräfte für etw aufsparen

* * *

energy [ˈenə(r)dʒı] s

1. Energie f:

a) Kraft f, Nachdruck m:

apply ( oder devote) all one’s energies to sth seine ganze Kraft für etwas einsetzen

b) Tatkraft f

2. Wirksamkeit f, Durchschlagskraft f (eines Arguments etc)

3. PHYS Energie f, (innewohnende) Kraft, Arbeitsfähigkeit f, Leistung f:

energy balance Energiehaushalt m (des Körpers);

energy budget Energiehaushalt m (der Erde etc);

energy-conscious energiebewusst;

energy crisis Energiekrise f;

energy-efficient energiesparend;

energy gap Energielücke f;

energy-intensive energieintensiv;

energy-saving energiesparend;

energy-saving light bulb Energiesparlampe f;

energy-saving measures Energiesparmaßnahmen;

energy supply Energieversorgung f;

energy theorem MATH Energiesatz m

4. Kraftaufwand m

E abk

1. PHYS energy

2. TECH electromotive force

* * *

noun

1) (vigour) Energie, die; (active operation) Kraft, die

save your energy! — schone deine Kräfte!

I've no energy left — ich habe keine Energie mehr

2) in pl. (individual's powers) Kraft, die

3) (Phys.) Energie, die

sources of energy — Energiequellen

* * *

n.

Energie -n f.

Tatkraft -¨e f.

English-german dictionary > energy
12 crunch

[krʌnʧ] 1. сущ.
1) хруст, треск, скрип

2) разг. критический, решающий момент

when it comes to the crunch — когда наступит критический момент

crunch game / match — решающая игра, решающий матч

to be in a crunch / to feel the crunch — переживать трудности, находиться в критической ситуации

Syn:

crisis

3) ( the crunch) амер.; эк. нехватка (денежных средств); финансовый, экономический кризис; ограничение (кредита)

capacity crunch — нехватка производственных мощностей

credit crunch — ограничение кредита

economic crunch — экономический кризис

budget crunch — бюджетный дефицит

profit crunch — снижение прибыли

Syn:

crisis, shortage

4) спорт.; = abdominal crunch упражнение для укрепления мышц брюшного пресса: подъём туловища к коленям из положения лёжа на спине

to do abdominal crunches — качать пресс

Syn:

sit-up
2. гл.
1) грызть с хрустом

to crunch a piece of toast — грызть тост

She was crunching (on) a raw carrot as she read the paper. — Она читала газету и грызла морковку.

2) скрипеть, хрустеть (под колёсами, ногами)

Broken china crunched under my feet. — Осколки фарфора хрустели у меня под ногами.

3) раздавливать с хрустом

Their boots crunched loudly on the frozen snow. — Снег громко скрипел у них под сапогами.

4) разг. производить вычисления, обрабатывать данные

to crunch numbers — производить математические вычисления

to crunch data — обрабатывать данные

5) = crunch down / up размалывать, расщеплять

This machine crunches the rock up so that it can be used for road building. — Эта машина дробит камень на куски, пригодные для строительства дорог.

Англо-русский современный словарь > crunch
13 education

education [‚edjʊˈkeɪ∫ən]

noun

(general concept) éducation f ; ( = teaching) enseignement m

• our priorities are health and education nos priorités sont la santé et l'éducation

• he had a good education il a reçu une bonne éducation

• he has had very little education il n'a pas fait beaucoup d'études

• she has had a university education elle a fait des études supérieures

• the education he received at school l'instruction qu'il a reçue à l'école

• primary/secondary education enseignement m primaire/secondaire

• education is free in Britain l'enseignement est gratuit en Grande-Bretagne

• the education system le système éducatif

• people working in education les personnes qui travaillent dans l'enseignement

► education authority noun (British) ≈ délégation f départementale de l'enseignement

* * *
[ˌedʒʊ'keɪʃn] 1.
noun

1) ( training) gen éducation f, instruction f; (in health, road safety) information f

2) ( formal schooling) études fpl

a university ou college education — des études supérieures

to get a good education — faire de solides études

3) ( national system) enseignement m

government spending on education — le budget de l'éducation

4) University ( field of study) sciences fpl de l'éducation
2.
noun modifier [ budget, spending, crisis] de l'enseignement; [ method] School, University d'enseignement; [ Minister, Ministry] Administration de l'éducation

education standards — School niveau m scolaire; University niveau m universitaire

the education system — le système éducatif

English-French dictionary > education
14 package

1) комплект, набор; пакет

2) комплекс мер, мероприятий

•

- austere fiscal package

- benefits package

- budget package

- compensation package

- contract package

- crisis resolution package

- currency package

- debt-rescheduling package

- debt-restructuring package

- financial package

- financing package

- innovative financing package

- investment package

- licensing package

- new money packages

- one-stop financing package

- pay package

- risk package

- share package

- package of anti-deflation steps

- package of banking services

- package of debts

- package of proposals

- package of services

- package of shares

- offer a package of services

- provide a package of services

Luxembourg prime minister will today finalise a compromise budget package for which he hopes to win the support of all member states at the Brussels summit. — Премьер-министр Люксембурга сегодня представит компромиссный пакет бюджетных предложений, который, он надеется, получит поддержку всех государств-членов на саммите в Брюсселе.

English-russian dctionary of diplomacy > package
15 Salazar, Antônio de Oliveira

(1889-1970)

   The Coimbra University professor of finance and economics and one of the founders of the Estado Novo, who came to dominate Western Europe's longest surviving authoritarian system. Salazar was born on 28 April 1889, in Vimieiro, Beira Alta province, the son of a peasant estate manager and a shopkeeper. Most of his first 39 years were spent as a student, and later as a teacher in a secondary school and a professor at Coimbra University's law school. Nine formative years were spent at Viseu's Catholic Seminary (1900-09), preparing for the Catholic priesthood, but the serious, studious Salazar decided to enter Coimbra University instead in 1910, the year the Braganza monarchy was overthrown and replaced by the First Republic. Salazar received some of the highest marks of his generation of students and, in 1918, was awarded a doctoral degree in finance and economics. Pleading inexperience, Salazar rejected an invitation in August 1918 to become finance minister in the "New Republic" government of President Sidónio Pais.

   As a celebrated academic who was deeply involved in Coimbra University politics, publishing works on the troubled finances of the besieged First Republic, and a leader of Catholic organizations, Sala-zar was not as modest, reclusive, or unknown as later official propaganda led the public to believe. In 1921, as a Catholic deputy, he briefly served in the First Republic's turbulent congress (parliament) but resigned shortly after witnessing but one stormy session. Salazar taught at Coimbra University as of 1916, and continued teaching until April 1928. When the military overthrew the First Republic in May 1926, Salazar was offered the Ministry of Finance and held office for several days. The ascetic academic, however, resigned his post when he discovered the degree of disorder in Lisbon's government and when his demands for budget authority were rejected.

   As the military dictatorship failed to reform finances in the following years, Salazar was reinvited to become minister of finances in April 1928. Since his conditions for acceptance—authority over all budget expenditures, among other powers—were accepted, Salazar entered the government. Using the Ministry of Finance as a power base, following several years of successful financial reforms, Salazar was named interim minister of colonies (1930) and soon garnered sufficient prestige and authority to become head of the entire government. In July 1932, Salazar was named prime minister, the first civilian to hold that post since the 1926 military coup.

   Salazar gathered around him a team of largely academic experts in the cabinet during the period 1930-33. His government featured several key policies: Portuguese nationalism, colonialism (rebuilding an empire in shambles), Catholicism, and conservative fiscal management. Salazar's government came to be called the Estado Novo. It went through three basic phases during Salazar's long tenure in office, and Salazar's role underwent changes as well. In the early years (1928-44), Salazar and the Estado Novo enjoyed greater vigor and popularity than later. During the middle years (1944—58), the regime's popularity waned, methods of repression increased and hardened, and Salazar grew more dogmatic in his policies and ways. During the late years (1958-68), the regime experienced its most serious colonial problems, ruling circles—including Salazar—aged and increasingly failed, and opposition burgeoned and grew bolder.

   Salazar's plans for stabilizing the economy and strengthening social and financial programs were shaken with the impact of the civil war (1936-39) in neighboring Spain. Salazar strongly supported General Francisco Franco's Nationalist rebels, the eventual victors in the war. But, as the civil war ended and World War II began in September 1939, Salazar's domestic plans had to be adjusted. As Salazar came to monopolize Lisbon's power and authority—indeed to embody the Estado Novo itself—during crises that threatened the future of the regime, he assumed ever more key cabinet posts. At various times between 1936 and 1944, he took over the Ministries of Foreign Affairs and of War (Defense), until the crises passed. At the end of the exhausting period of World War II, there were rumors that the former professor would resign from government and return to Coimbra University, but Salazar continued as the increasingly isolated, dominating "recluse of São Bento," that part of the parliament's buildings housing the prime minister's offices and residence.

   Salazar dominated the Estado Novo's government in several ways: in day-to-day governance, although this diminished as he delegated wider powers to others after 1944, and in long-range policy decisions, as well as in the spirit and image of the system. He also launched and dominated the single party, the União Nacional. A lifelong bachelor who had once stated that he could not leave for Lisbon because he had to care for his aged mother, Salazar never married, but lived with a beloved housekeeper from his Coimbra years and two adopted daughters. During his 36-year tenure as prime minister, Salazar engineered the important cabinet reshuffles that reflect the history of the Estado Novo and of Portugal.

   A number of times, in connection with significant events, Salazar decided on important cabinet officer changes: 11 April 1933 (the adoption of the Estado Novo's new 1933 Constitution); 18 January 1936 (the approach of civil war in Spain and the growing threat of international intervention in Iberian affairs during the unstable Second Spanish Republic of 1931-36); 4 September 1944 (the Allied invasion of Europe at Normandy and the increasing likelihood of a defeat of the Fascists by the Allies, which included the Soviet Union); 14 August 1958 (increased domestic dissent and opposition following the May-June 1958 presidential elections in which oppositionist and former regime stalwart-loyalist General Humberto Delgado garnered at least 25 percent of the national vote, but lost to regime candidate, Admiral Américo Tomás); 13 April 1961 (following the shock of anticolonial African insurgency in Portugal's colony of Angola in January-February 1961, the oppositionist hijacking of a Portuguese ocean liner off South America by Henrique Galvão, and an abortive military coup that failed to oust Salazar from office); and 19 August 1968 (the aging of key leaders in the government, including the now gravely ill Salazar, and the defection of key younger followers).

   In response to the 1961 crisis in Africa and to threats to Portuguese India from the Indian government, Salazar assumed the post of minister of defense (April 1961-December 1962). The failing leader, whose true state of health was kept from the public for as long as possible, appointed a group of younger cabinet officers in the 1960s, but no likely successors were groomed to take his place. Two of the older generation, Teotónio Pereira, who was in bad health, and Marcello Caetano, who preferred to remain at the University of Lisbon or in private law practice, remained in the political wilderness.

   As the colonial wars in three African territories grew more costly, Salazar became more isolated from reality. On 3 August 1968, while resting at his summer residence, the Fortress of São João do Estoril outside Lisbon, a deck chair collapsed beneath Salazar and his head struck the hard floor. Some weeks later, as a result, Salazar was incapacitated by a stroke and cerebral hemorrhage, was hospitalized, and became an invalid. While hesitating to fill the power vacuum that had unexpectedly appeared, President Tomás finally replaced Salazar as prime minister on 27 September 1968, with his former protégé and colleague, Marcello Caetano. Salazar was not informed that he no longer headed the government, but he never recovered his health. On 27 July 1970, Salazar died in Lisbon and was buried at Santa Comba Dão, Vimieiro, his village and place of birth.

    See also Corporativism; Integralism; Salazarism.

Historical dictionary of Portugal > Salazar, Antônio de Oliveira
16 education

education

A n

1 ( training) gen éducation f, instruction f ; (in health, road safety) information f ; musical/political/moral education éducation musicale/politique/morale ; education is the key to success l'éducation est la clé de la réussite ;

2 ( formal schooling) études fpl ; private/state school education études dans une école privée/dans une école publique ; to continue one's education poursuivre ses études ; education should be available to all l'instruction devrait être accessible à tous ; to have had a university ou college education avoir fait des études supérieures ; to get a good education faire de solides études ; she has had little education elle n'a pas beaucoup d'instruction ;

3 ( national system) enseignement m ; primary/secondary education enseignement primaire/secondaire ; government spending on education le budget de l'éducation ;

4 Univ ( field of study) sciences fpl de l'éducation.

B modif [budget, spending, crisis] de l'enseignement ; [method] Sch, Univ d'enseignement ; [Minister, Ministry] Admin de l'Éducation ; [department] Univ des sciences de l'éducation ; [diploma] Univ en sciences de l'éducation ; [allowance] d'études ; education standards Sch niveau m scolaire ; Univ niveau m universitaire ; the education system in France/Britain le système éducatif français/britannique.

Big English-French dictionary > education
17 provision

provision [prə'vɪʒən]

1 transitive verb

approvisionner, ravitailler

2 noun

(a) (act of supplying) approvisionnement m, fourniture f, ravitaillement m;

∎ provision of supplies in wartime is a major problem le ravitaillement en temps de guerre pose de graves problèmes;

∎ one of their functions is the provision of meals for the homeless un de leurs rôles est de distribuer des repas aux sans-abri;

∎ the provision of new jobs la création d'emplois

(b) (stock, supply) provision f, réserve f;

∎ to lay in provisions for the winter faire des provisions pour l'hiver;

∎ the US sent medical provisions les États-Unis envoyèrent des stocks de médicaments;

∎ I have a week's provision of firewood left il me reste du bois ou assez de bois pour une semaine

(c) (arrangement) disposition f;

∎ they are making provisions for a crisis ils prennent des dispositions en vue d'une crise;

∎ no provision had been made for the influx of refugees aucune disposition n'avait été prise pour faire face à l'afflux de réfugiés;

∎ social service provision has been cut again les services sociaux ont à nouveau connu des compressions budgétaires;

∎ to make provisions for one's family pourvoir aux besoins de sa famille;

∎ you should think about making provisions for the future vous devriez penser à assurer votre avenir;

∎ having a lot of children was a provision for old age le fait d'avoir de nombreux enfants constituait pour les parents une sorte d'assurance vieillesse

(d) Finance (allowance) provision f;

∎ to make provision for sth prévoir qch

(e) (condition, clause) disposition f, clause f;

∎ under the provisions of the UN charter/his will selon les dispositions de la charte de l'ONU/de son testament;

∎ a 4 percent increase is included in the budget's provisions une augmentation de 4 pour cent est prévue dans le budget;

∎ Law notwithstanding any provision to the contrary nonobstant toute clause contraire

3 provisions plural noun

(food) vivres mpl, provisions fpl

►► Accountancy provision for bad debts provision f pour créances douteuses;

Finance provision of capital prestation f de capitaux;

Accountancy provision for depreciation provision f pour dépréciation ou amortissement;

Accountancy provision for liabilities provision f pour sommes exigibles

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > provision
18 work

work [wɜ:k]

travail ⇒ 1 (a)-(e), 1 (g) œuvre ⇒ 1 (a), 1 (f) besogne ⇒ 1 (b) emploi ⇒ 1 (c) ouvrage ⇒ 1 (f) recherches ⇒ 1 (g) travailler ⇒ 2A (a)-(e), 3A (b), 3A (c), 3A (e), 3C (a) fonctionner ⇒ 2B (a) marcher ⇒ 2B (a), 2B (b) réussir ⇒ 2B (b) agir ⇒ 2B (c), 2B (d) faire travailler ⇒ 3A (a) faire marcher ⇒ 3B (a) façonner ⇒ 3C (a) mécanisme ⇒ 4 1 (a) travaux ⇒ 4 1 (b) usine ⇒ 4 2 (a)

1 noun

(a) (effort, activity) travail m, œuvre f;

∎ computers take some of the work out of filing les ordinateurs facilitent le classement;

∎ this report needs more work il y a encore du travail à faire sur ce rapport, ce rapport demande plus de travail;

∎ she's done a lot of work for charity elle a beaucoup travaillé pour des associations caritatives;

∎ it will take a lot of work to make a team out of them ça va être un drôle de travail de faire d'eux une équipe;

∎ keep up the good work! continuez comme ça!;

∎ nice or good work! c'est du bon travail!, bravo!;

∎ that's fine work or a fine piece of work c'est du beau travail;

∎ your work has been useful vous avez fait du travail utile;

∎ work on the tunnel is to start in March (existing tunnel) les travaux sur le tunnel doivent commencer en mars; (new tunnel) la construction du tunnel doit commencer en mars;

∎ work in progress Administration travail en cours; Accountancy travaux mpl en cours, inventaire m de production; (sign) travaux en cours;

∎ she put a lot of work into that book elle a beaucoup travaillé sur ce livre;

∎ to make work for sb compliquer la vie à qn;

∎ to start work, to set to work se mettre au travail;

∎ she set or she went to work on the contract elle a commencé à travailler sur le contrat;

∎ he set to work undermining their confidence il a entrepris de saper leur confiance;

∎ I set him to work (on) painting the kitchen je lui ai donné la cuisine à peindre;

∎ they put him to work in the kitchen ils l'ont mis au travail dans la cuisine;

∎ let's get (down) to work! (mettons-nous) au travail!;

∎ proverb all work and no play makes Jack a dull boy beaucoup de travail et peu de loisirs ne réussissent à personne

(b) (duty, task) travail m, besogne f;

∎ I've got loads of work to do j'ai énormément de travail à faire;

∎ she gave us too much work elle nous a donné trop de travail;

∎ he's trying to get some work done il essaie de travailler un peu;

∎ they do their work well ils travaillent bien, ils font du bon travail;

∎ it's hard work c'est du travail, ce n'est pas facile;

∎ it's thirsty work ça donne soif;

∎ to make short or light work of sth expédier qch;

∎ figurative to make short work of sb ne faire qu'une bouchée de qn;

∎ familiar it's nice work if you can get it! c'est une bonne planque, encore faut-il la trouver!

(c) (paid employment) travail m, emploi m;

∎ what (kind of) work do you do? qu'est-ce que vous faites dans la vie?, quel travail faites-vous?;

∎ I do translation work je suis traducteur, je fais des traductions;

∎ to find work trouver du travail;

∎ to look for work chercher du travail ou un emploi;

∎ to be in work travailler, avoir un emploi;

∎ to be out of work être au chômage ou sans travail ou sans emploi;

∎ he had a week off work (holiday) il a pris une semaine de vacances; (illness) il n'est pas allé au travail pendant une semaine;

∎ to take time off work prendre des congés;

∎ she's off work today elle ne travaille pas aujourd'hui;

∎ to do a full day's work faire une journée entière de travail;

∎ people out of work (gen) les chômeurs mpl; Administration & Economics les inactifs mpl

(d) (place of employment) travail m; Administration lieu m de travail;

∎ I go to work by bus je vais au travail en bus;

∎ I'm late for work je suis en retard pour le travail;

∎ he's a friend from work c'est un collègue;

∎ where is your (place of) work? où travaillez-vous?, quel est votre lieu de travail?;

∎ on her way home from work en rentrant du travail

(e) (papers, material etc being worked on) travail m;

∎ to take work home prendre du travail à la maison;

∎ her work was all over the table son travail était étalé sur la table

(f) (creation, artefact etc) œuvre f; (on smaller scale) ouvrage m; Sewing ouvrage m;

∎ it's all my own work j'ai tout fait moi-même;

∎ it's an interesting piece of work (gen) c'est un travail intéressant; Art, Literature & Music c'est une œuvre intéressante;

∎ very detailed/delicate work (embroidery, carving etc) ouvrage très détaillé/délicat;

∎ these formations are the work of the wind ces formations sont l'œuvre du vent;

∎ the silversmith sells much of his work to hotels l'orfèvre vend une grande partie de ce qu'il fait ou de son travail à des hôtels;

∎ the complete works of Shakespeare les œuvres complètes ou l'œuvre de Shakespeare;

∎ a new work on Portugal un nouvel ouvrage sur le Portugal;

∎ a work of art une œuvre d'art;

∎ works of fiction des ouvrages de fiction

(g) (research) travail m, recherches fpl;

∎ there hasn't been a lot of work done on the subject peu de travail a été fait ou peu de recherches ont été faites sur le sujet

(h) (deed) œuvre f, acte m;

∎ good works bonnes œuvres fpl;

∎ each man will be judged by his works chaque homme sera jugé selon ses œuvres;

∎ charitable works actes mpl de charité, actes mpl charitables;

∎ the murder is the work of a madman le meurtre est l'œuvre d'un fou

(i) (effect) effet m;

∎ wait until the medicine has done its work attendez que le médicament ait agi ou ait produit son effet

(j) Physics travail m

2 intransitive verb

A.

(a) (exert effort on a specific task, activity etc) travailler;

∎ we worked for hours cleaning the house nous avons passé des heures à faire le ménage;

∎ they worked in the garden ils ont fait du jardinage;

∎ we work hard nous travaillons dur;

∎ she's working on a novel just now elle travaille à un roman en ce moment;

∎ a detective is working on this case un détective est sur cette affaire;

∎ he works at or on keeping himself fit il fait de l'exercice pour garder la forme;

∎ we have to work to a deadline nous devons respecter des délais dans notre travail;

∎ we have to work to a budget nous devons travailler avec un certain budget;

∎ I've worked with the handicapped before j'ai déjà travaillé avec les handicapés;

∎ I work with the Spanish on that project je travaille (en collaboration) avec les Espagnols sur ce projet

(b) (be employed) travailler;

∎ he works as a teacher il a un poste d'enseignant;

∎ I work in advertising je travaille dans la publicité;

∎ who do you work for? chez qui est-ce que vous travaillez?;

∎ she works in or for a bank elle travaille dans ou pour une banque;

∎ I work a forty-hour week je travaille quarante heures par semaine, je fais une semaine de quarante heures;

∎ to work for a living travailler pour gagner sa vie;

∎ Industry to work to rule faire la grève du zèle

(c) (strive for a specific goal or aim)

∎ to work for a good cause travailler pour une bonne cause;

∎ they're working for better international relations ils s'efforcent d'améliorer les relations internationales

(d) (study) travailler, étudier;

∎ you're going to have to work if you want to pass the exam il va falloir que tu travailles ou que tu étudies si tu veux avoir ton examen

(e) (use a specified substance) travailler;

∎ this sculptor works in or with copper ce sculpteur travaille avec le cuivre;

∎ she has always worked in or with watercolours elle a toujours travaillé avec de la peinture à l'eau

B.

(a) (function, operate → machine, brain, system) fonctionner, marcher;

∎ the lift doesn't work at night l'ascenseur ne marche pas la nuit;

∎ the lift never works l'ascenseur est toujours en panne;

∎ the radio works off batteries la radio fonctionne avec des piles;

∎ a pump worked by hand une pompe actionnée à la main ou manuellement;

∎ they soon got or had it working ils sont vite parvenus à le faire fonctionner;

∎ she sat still, her brain or her mind working furiously elle était assise immobile, le cerveau en ébullition;

∎ figurative everything worked smoothly tout s'est déroulé comme prévu;

∎ your idea just won't work ton idée ne peut pas marcher;

∎ this relationship isn't working cette relation ne marche pas;

∎ that argument works both ways ce raisonnement est à double tranchant;

∎ how does the law work exactly? comment la loi fonctionne-t-elle exactement?

(b) (produce results, succeed) marcher, réussir;

∎ it worked brilliantly ça a très bien marché;

∎ their scheme didn't work leur complot a échoué;

∎ that/flattery won't work with me ça/la flatterie ne prend pas avec moi

(c) (drug, medicine) agir, produire ou faire son effet

(d) (act) agir;

∎ the acid works as a catalyst l'acide agit comme ou sert de catalyseur;

∎ events have worked against us/in our favour les événements ont agi contre nous/en notre faveur;

∎ I'm working on the assumption that they'll sign the contract je pars du principe qu'ils signeront le contrat

C.

(a) (reach a condition or state gradually)

∎ to work loose se desserrer;

∎ to work free se libérer;

∎ the nail worked through the sole of my shoe le clou est passé à travers la semelle de ma chaussure

(b) (face, mouth) se contracter, se crisper

(c) (ferment) fermenter

3 transitive verb

A.

(a) (worker, employee, horse) faire travailler;

∎ the boss works his staff hard le patron exige beaucoup de travail de ses employés;

∎ you work yourself too hard tu te surmènes;

∎ to work oneself to death se tuer à la tâche;

∎ to work one's fingers to the bone s'user au travail

(b) (pay for with labour or service)

∎ they worked their passage to India ils ont payé leur passage en Inde en travaillant;

∎ I worked my way through college j'ai travaillé pour payer mes études à l'université

(c) (carry on activity in)

∎ he works the southern sales area il travaille pour le service commercial de la région sud;

∎ the pollster worked both sides of the street le sondeur a enquêté des deux côtés de la rue;

∎ figurative the candidate worked the crowd le candidat s'efforçait de soulever l'enthousiasme de la foule;

∎ a real-estate agent who works the phones un agent immobilier qui fait de la prospection par téléphone;

∎ she works the bars (prostitute) elle travaille dans les bars

(d) (achieve, accomplish)

∎ the new policy will work major changes la nouvelle politique opérera ou entraînera des changements importants;

∎ the story worked its magic or its charm on the public l'histoire a enchanté le public;

∎ to work a spell on sb jeter un sort à qn;

∎ to work miracles faire ou accomplir des miracles;

∎ to work wonders faire merveille;

∎ she has worked wonders with the children elle a fait des merveilles avec les enfants

(e) (make use of, exploit → land) travailler, cultiver; (→ mine, quarry) exploiter, faire valoir

B.

(a) (operate) faire marcher, faire fonctionner;

∎ this switch works the furnace ce bouton actionne ou commande la chaudière;

∎ he knows how to work the drill il sait se servir de la perceuse

(b) (manoeuvre)

∎ I worked the handle up and down j'ai remué la poignée de haut en bas;

∎ to work one's hands free parvenir à dégager ses mains;

∎ she worked the ropes loose elle a réussi à desserrer les cordes petit à petit

(c) (by slow progression)

∎ I worked my way along the ledge j'ai longé la saillie avec précaution;

∎ he worked his way down/up the cliff il a descendu/monté la falaise lentement;

∎ the beggar worked his way towards us le mendiant s'est approché de nous;

∎ they worked their way through the list ils ont traité chaque élément de la liste tour à tour;

∎ he's worked his way through the whole grant il a épuisé toute la subvention;

∎ a band of rain working its way across the country un front de pluie qui traverse le pays;

∎ they have worked themselves into a corner ils se sont mis dans une impasse

(d) familiar (contrive) s'arranger;

∎ she managed to work a few days off elle s'est arrangée ou s'est débrouillée pour avoir quelques jours de congé;

∎ I worked it or worked things so that she's never alone j'ai fait en sorte qu'elle ou je me suis arrangé pour qu'elle ne soit jamais seule

C.

(a) (shape → leather, metal, stone) travailler, façonner; (→ clay, dough) travailler, pétrir; (→ object, sculpture) façonner; Sewing (design, initials) broder;

∎ she worked the silver into earrings elle a travaillé l'argent pour en faire des boucles d'oreilles;

∎ she worked a figure out of the wood elle a sculpté une silhouette dans le bois;

∎ the flowers are worked in silk les fleurs sont brodées en soie;

∎ work the putty into the right consistency travaillez le mastic pour lui donner la consistance voulue

(b) (rub)

∎ gently work the cream into your hands massez-vous les mains pour faire pénétrer la crème;

∎ work the dye into the surface of the leather faites pénétrer la teinture dans le cuir

(c) (excite, provoke)

∎ the orator worked the audience into a frenzy l'orateur a enflammé ou a galvanisé le public;

∎ she worked herself into a rage elle s'est mise dans une colère noire

4 works

1 plural noun

(a) (mechanism) mécanisme m, rouages mpl; (of clock) mouvement m;

∎ familiar to foul up or to gum up the works tout foutre en l'air

(b) Building industry travaux mpl; (installation) installations fpl;

∎ road works travaux mpl; (sign) travaux;

∎ Minister/Ministry of Works ministre m/ministère m des Travaux publics

2 noun

(a) Industry (factory) usine f;

∎ a printing works une imprimerie;

∎ a gas works une usine à gaz;

∎ price ex works prix m sortie usine

(b) familiar (everything)

∎ the (whole) works tout le bataclan ou le tralala;

∎ they had eggs, bacon, toast, the works ils mangeaient des œufs, du bacon, du pain grillé, tout, quoi!;

∎ American to shoot the works jouer le grand jeu;

∎ American we shot the works on the project nous avons mis le paquet sur le projet;

∎ to give sb the works (special treatment) dérouler le tapis rouge pour qn; (beating) passer qn à tabac

5 at work

1 adjective

(a) (person)

∎ to be at work on sth/(on) doing sth travailler (à) qch/à faire qch;

∎ he's at work on a new book il travaille à un nouveau livre;

∎ they're hard at work painting the house ils sont en plein travail, ils repeignent la maison

(b) (having an effect)

∎ there are several factors at work here il y a plusieurs facteurs qui entrent en jeu ou qui jouent ici;

∎ there are evil forces at work des forces mauvaises sont en action

2 adverb

(at place of work)

∎ she's at work (gen) elle est au travail; (office) elle est au bureau; (factory) elle est à l'usine;

∎ I'll phone you at work je t'appellerai au travail;

∎ we met at work on s'est connus au travail

►► work area (in school, home) coin m de travail; Computing zone f de travail;

works band fanfare m (d'une entreprise);

work camp (prison) camp m de travail; (voluntary) chantier m de travail;

American work coat blouse f;

works committee, works council comité m d'entreprise;

work ethic = exaltation des valeurs liées au travail;

work experience stage m (en entreprise);

∎ the course includes two months' work experience le programme comprend un stage en entreprise de deux mois;

American work farm = camp de travail forcé où les détenus travaillent la terre;

Computing work file fichier m de travail;

work flow déroulement m des opérations;

work group groupe m de travail;

works manager directeur(trice) m,f d'usine;

work party (of soldiers) escouade f; (of prisoners) groupe m de travail;

work permit permis m de travail;

Computing work sheet feuille f de travail;

work space (at home) coin-travail m; (in office) & Computing espace m de travail;

∎ I need more work space j'ai besoin de plus d'espace pour travailler;

work surface surface f de travail;

American work week semaine f de travail

➲ work away intransitive verb

travailler;

∎ while he worked away at fixing the furnace tandis qu'il travaillait à réparer la chaudière;

∎ we worked away all evening nous avons passé la soirée à travailler

➲ work down intransitive verb

glisser;

∎ her socks had worked down around her ankles ses chaussettes étaient tombées sur ses chevilles

➲ work in separable transitive verb

(a) (incorporate) incorporer;

∎ work the ointment in thoroughly faites bien pénétrer la pommade;

∎ Cookery work the butter into the flour incorporez le beurre à la farine

(b) (insert) faire entrer ou introduire petit à petit;

∎ he worked in a few sly remarks about the boss il a réussi à glisser quelques réflexions sournoises sur le patron;

∎ I'll try and work the translation in some time this week (into schedule) j'essayerai de (trouver le temps de) faire la traduction dans le courant de la semaine

➲ work off separable transitive verb

(a) (dispose of → fat, weight) se débarrasser de, éliminer; (→ anxiety, frustration) passer, assouvir;

∎ I worked off my excess energy chopping wood j'ai dépensé mon trop-plein d'énergie en cassant du bois;

∎ he worked off his tensions by running il s'est défoulé en faisant du jogging;

∎ to work off one's anger on sb passer sa colère sur qn

(b) (debt, obligation)

∎ it took him three months to work off his debt il a dû travailler trois mois pour rembourser son emprunt

➲ work on

1 inseparable transitive verb

(a) (person) essayer de convaincre;

∎ we've been working on him but he still won't go nous avons essayé de le persuader mais il ne veut toujours pas y aller;

∎ I'll work on her je vais m'occuper d'elle

(b) (task, problem)

∎ the police are working on who stole the jewels la police s'efforce de retrouver celui qui a volé les bijoux;

∎ he's been working on his breaststroke/emotional problems il a travaillé sa brasse/essayé de résoudre ses problèmes sentimentaux;

∎ have you got any ideas? - I'm working on it as-tu des idées? - je cherche

(c) (use as basis)

∎ have you any data to work on? avez-vous des données sur lesquelles vous fonder?

2 intransitive verb

(continue to work) continuer à travailler

➲ work out

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (discharge fully) acquitter en travaillant;

∎ to work out one's notice faire son préavis

(b) (calculate → cost, distance, sum) calculer; (→ answer, total) trouver;

∎ I work it out at £22 d'après mes calculs, ça fait 22 livres

(c) (solve → calculation, problem) résoudre; (→ puzzle) faire, résoudre; (→ code) déchiffrer;

∎ have they worked out their differences? est-ce qu'ils ont réglé ou résolu leurs différends?;

∎ I'm sure we can work this thing out (your problem) je suis sûr que nous pouvons arranger ça; (our argument) je suis sûr que nous finirons par nous mettre d'accord;

∎ things will work themselves out les choses s'arrangeront toutes seules ou d'elles-mêmes

(d) (formulate → idea, plan) élaborer, combiner; (→ agreement, details) mettre au point;

∎ to work out a solution trouver une solution;

∎ have you worked out yet when it's due to start? est-ce que tu sais quand ça doit commencer?;

∎ she had it all worked out elle avait tout planifié;

∎ we worked out an easier route nous avons trouvé un itinéraire plus facile

(e) (figure out) arriver à comprendre;

∎ I finally worked out why he was acting so strangely j'ai enfin découvert ou compris pourquoi il se comportait si bizarrement;

∎ the dog had worked out how to open the door le chien avait compris comment ouvrir la porte;

∎ I can't work her out je n'arrive pas à la comprendre;

∎ I can't work their relationship out leurs rapports me dépassent

(f) (mine, well) épuiser

2 intransitive verb

(a) (happen) se passer;

∎ it depends on how things work out ça dépend de la façon dont les choses se passent;

∎ the trip worked out as planned le voyage s'est déroulé comme prévu;

∎ I wonder how it will all work out je me demande comment tout cela va s'arranger;

∎ it all worked out for the best tout a fini par s'arranger pour le mieux;

∎ but it didn't work out that way mais il en a été tout autrement;

∎ it worked out badly for them les choses ont mal tourné pour eux

(b) (have a good result → job, plan) réussir; (→ problem, puzzle) se résoudre;

∎ she worked out fine as personnel director elle s'est bien débrouillée comme directeur du personnel;

∎ are things working out for you OK? est-ce que ça se passe bien pour toi?;

∎ did the new job work out? ça a marché pour le nouveau boulot?;

∎ it didn't work out between them les choses ont plutôt mal tourné entre eux;

∎ their project didn't work out leur projet est tombé à l'eau

(c) (amount to)

∎ how much does it all work out at? ça fait combien en tout?;

∎ the average price for an apartment works out to or at $5,000 per square metre le prix moyen d'un appartement s'élève ou revient à 5000 dollars le mètre carré;

∎ that works out at three hours a week ça fait trois heures par semaine;

∎ electric heating works out expensive le chauffage électrique revient cher

(d) (exercise) faire de l'exercice; (professional athlete) s'entraîner

➲ work over separable transitive verb

(a) American (revise) revoir, réviser

(b) familiar (beat up) tabasser, passer à tabac

➲ work round

1 intransitive verb

(a) (turn) tourner;

∎ the wind worked round to the north le vent a tourné au nord petit à petit

(b) figurative (in conversation)

∎ he finally worked round to the subject of housing il a fini par aborder le sujet du logement;

∎ what's she working round to? où veut-elle en venir?

2 separable transitive verb

∎ (bring round) I worked the conversation round to my salary j'ai amené la conversation sur la question de mon salaire

➲ work through

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (insert) faire passer à travers

(b) (progress through)

∎ we worked our way through the crowd nous nous sommes frayé un chemin à travers la foule;

∎ he worked his way through the book il a lu le livre du début à la fin;

∎ figurative I worked the problem through j'ai étudié le problème sous tous ses aspects

2 inseparable transitive verb

(a) (continue to work)

∎ she worked through lunch elle a travaillé pendant l'heure du déjeuner

(b) (resolve)

∎ he worked through his emotional problems il a réussi à assumer ses problèmes affectifs

➲ work up

1 separable transitive verb

(a) (stir up, rouse) exciter, provoquer;

∎ he worked up the crowd il a excité la foule;

∎ he worked the crowd up into a frenzy il a rendu la foule frénétique;

∎ he works himself up or he gets himself worked up over nothing il s'énerve pour rien;

∎ she had worked herself up into a dreadful rage elle s'était mise dans une rage terrible

(b) (develop) développer;

∎ I want to work these ideas up into an article je veux développer ces idées pour en faire un article;

∎ to work up an appetite se mettre en appétit;

∎ we worked up a sweat/a thirst playing tennis jouer au tennis nous a donné chaud/soif;

∎ I can't work up any enthusiasm for this work je n'arrive pas à avoir le moindre enthousiasme pour ce travail;

∎ he tried to work up an interest in the cause il a essayé de s'intéresser à la cause

(c) (idiom)

∎ to work one's way up faire son chemin;

∎ she worked her way up from secretary to managing director elle a commencé comme secrétaire et elle a fait son chemin jusqu'au poste de P-DG;

∎ I worked my way up from nothing je suis parti de rien

2 intransitive verb

(a) (clothing) remonter

(b) (build up)

∎ the film was working up to a climax le film approchait de son point culminant;

∎ things were working up to a crisis une crise se préparait, on était au bord d'une crise;

∎ she's working up to what she wanted to ask elle en vient à ce qu'elle voulait demander;

∎ what are you working up to? où veux-tu en venir?

Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > work
19 period

ˈpɪərɪəd
1. сущ.
1) период;
промежуток времени, срок for a period ≈ на время extra period ≈ добавочное, дополнительное время cooling-off period honeymoon period incubation period rest period transitional period trial period waiting period
2) эпоха, значительный отрезок времени in a certain period ≈ в определенный момент, период in that period of history ≈ в этот исторический период prehistoric period ≈ доисторический период
3) мн. риторическая, "цветистая" речь( с точки зрения стиля)
4) а) мед. приступ, период обострения заболевания б) мн. менструация Syn: menses, catamenia
5) грам. период, большое сложное законченное предложение Tosltoy often used periods in his novels. ≈ толстой в своих романах очень часто прибегал к периодам.
6) а) пауза в конце периода, в конце предложения б) точка (знак препинания) Syn: full stop
7) фиксированный, отведенный, регламентированный интервал времени для чего-л. а) мат.;
астр.;
геол. период Syn: age, cycle, aeon, epoch, era, generation б) урок( в школе и т.д.)
8) муз. период
2. прил. относящийся к определенному периоду (о мебели, платье и т. п.) the practical book of period furniture ≈ практическое руководство по мебели разных периодов период, промежуток времени;
срок - lasting for a * of three months длящийся три месяца, сроком в три месяца - within the agreed * в пределах оговоренного срока - they visited us for a short * они немного погостили у нас - fixed * установленный период времени /срок/ - at this * of the year в это время года - a * of famine голодные времена - * of rest время /час/ отдыха;
передышка - extra /overtime/ * (спортивное) добавочное время (игры) - trial * испытательный срок стадия - *s of a disease стадии болезни - the * of incubation инкубационный период урок, занятие - a history * урок истории эпоха, время - the costume of the * костюм данной эпохи - * of change время перемен - catchwords of the * словечки, модные в определенную эпоху - sentiments of the * чувства, характерные для данной эпохи (грамматика) сложное законченное предложение;
фраза - well-rounded *s закругленные фразы точка;
пауза в конце предложения конец - to put a * to smth. поставить точку, положить конец чему-л. pl цветистая речь, риторика часто pl (физиологическое) месячные, менструация точка ( отделяющая целое число от десятых долей) (физическое) период колебаний - *s per second число оборотов /колебаний/ в секунду - natural * собственный период (колебаний) (специальное) цикл - transformation * период полураспада;
период /длительность/ превращения - combustion * период работы двигателя;
период активного полета - wave * период волны - circular orbit * период круговой орбиты спутника Земли (геология) эпоха, период - Silurian * силурийская система( музыкальное) период (спортивное) период относящийся к определенному периоду - * play комедия нравов - * house старинный дом - * film исторический кинофильм - * furniture стильная мебель - * room комната, обставленная старинной мебелью - * contract (юридическое) долгосрочный договор accounting ~ отчетный период accounting ~ период бухгалтерской отчетности accounting ~ расчетный период accounting ~ учетный период accounting ~ финансовый год accrual ~ период накопления (средств) additional maturity ~ пролонгированный срок долгового обязательства amortization ~ срок погашения долга в рассрочку average collection ~ средний срок взыскания долгов balancing ~ период сальдирования basic rental ~ основной срок аренды billing ~ расчетный период billing ~ расчетный срок budget ~ бюджетный период busy ~ период занятости carry-back ~ период покрытия убытков компании за счет прибыли за прошлое время circulation ~ период обращения construction ~ период строительства contract ~ срок действия контракта cooling ~ период охлаждения cooling-off ~ период обдумывания и переговоров credit ~ срок кредита deflationary ~ дефляционный период delay ~ период задержки delay ~ период запаздывания delivery ~ срок доставки earning ~ период пребывания на оплачиваемой работе election ~ период выборов electoral ~ период выборов elimination ~ период ликвидации exemption ~ период освобождения от налога extension ~ продленный срок financial ~ финансовый период fiscal ~ период налогообложения forbearance ~ период воздержания от действия forbearance ~ период отказа от применения принудительных мер forecasting ~ период прогнозирования forecasting ~ прогнозируемый период period время, эпоха;
our own period наша эпоха, наше время;
the girl of the period тип современной девушки given ~ данный период given ~ установленный срок grace ~ льготный период grace ~ льготный срок grace ~ период отсрочки guarantee ~ гарантийный срок holiday ~ отпускной период idle ~ нерабочий период idle ~ перерыв в работе idle ~ период бездействия idle ~ простой inactive ~ неэффективный период income ~ период получения дохода indemnity ~ гарантийный период indemnity ~ период компенсации убытков indemnity ~ срок возмещения вреда, ущерба, убытков inquiry ~ срок расследования insurance ~ срок страхования interest-paying ~ период начисления процентов intervening ~ наступающий период intervention ~ интервенционный период lean ~ неурожайное время legal storage ~ установленный законом период хранения legislative ~ законодательный период licensing ~ срок лицензирования loan ~ срок погашения ссуды lock-up ~ срок действия глобальных обязательств lock-up ~ бирж. срок запрета продажи maturity ~ период, когда наступает срок платежа mustering ~ период освидетельствования period время, эпоха;
our own period наша эпоха, наше время;
the girl of the period тип современной девушки part ~ неполный период pay ~ период платежа pay-back ~ срок возврата денег payback ~ период окупаемости капиталовложений payment ~ срок платежа payoff ~ период окупаемости payout ~ срок выплаты peak ~ период максимального товарооборота peak ~ период максимальной нагрузки period время, эпоха;
our own period наша эпоха, наше время;
the girl of the period тип современной девушки ~ время ~ круг, цикл ~ pl менструация ~ относящийся к определенному периоду (о мебели, платье и т. п.) ~ пауза в конце периода;
точка;
to put a period (to smth.) поставить точку;
положить конец (чему-л.) ~ период, промежуток времени ~ мат., астр., геол. период ~ грам. период, большое сложное законченное предложение ~ период;
промежуток времени;
period of years определенный период времени ~ период ~ промежуток времени ~ pl риторическая речь ~ риторическая речь ~ срок ~ стадия ~ for lodging appeal срок обжалования апелляции ~ of a partnership период сотрудничества ~ of acquisition период приобретения ~ of adversity неблагоприятный период ~ of adversity период пассивного баланса ~ of assessment период оценки в целях налогообложения ~ of cancellation срок окончательной оплаты ~ of cancellation срок погашения ~ of comparison период сравнения ~ of contribution срок взноса ~ of cover период страхования ~ of crisis период кризиса ~ of employment период занятости ~ of employment период работы( на рабочем месте) ~ of gestation период беременности ~ of grace льготный срок ~ of high cost of living период высокого прожиточного минимума ~ of high interest rates период высоких ставок процента ~ of hire срок проката ~ of indemnification срок возмещения убытка ~ of indemnification срок компенсации ~ of indemnity срок возмещения убытка ~ of indemnity срок компенсации ~ of insurance период действия договора страхования ~ of intervention период валютной интервенции ~ of irremovability период несмещения с должности ~ of limitation срок исковой давности ~ of loan срок кредитования ~ of nonterminability период несмещения с должности ~ of notice срок извещения ~ of notice срок оповещения ~ of notice срок уведомления ~ of notice of termination of contract срок уведомления о расторжении контракта ~ of notification срок уведомления ~ of operation период эксплуатации ~ of operation рабочий период ~ of payment срок платежа ~ of production время производства ~ of prosperity период процветания ~ of quiet период застоя ~ of recession период спада ~ of reference срок передачи на рассмотрение ~ of repayment срок выплаты ~ of repayment срок погашения ~ of report отчетный период ~ of report период отсрочки платежа за купленные акции на Лондонской фондовой бирже ~ of residence срок проживания ~ of scarcity период дефицита ~ of service продолжительность работы ~ of slack growth период медленного роста ~ of storage период хранения ~ of taxation период налогообложения ~ of time период времени ~ of transition переходный период ~ of use продолжительность использования ~ of validity срок действия ~ of vigorous growth период интенсивного роста ~ период;
промежуток времени;
period of years определенный период времени ~ of zero growth период нулевого роста ~ to maturity срок платежа ~ to maturity срок погашения policy ~ период ограниченной ответственности фирмы за дефекты policy ~ срок действия страхового полиса policy ~ срок страхования post-war ~ послевоенный период practice ~ практика, период практики ( в учебной программе) preceding ~ предшествующий период preliminary ~ предварительный период premium ~ срок уплаты страхового взноса probation ~ испытательный срок (период обучения или работы) probationary ~ испытательный срок ~ пауза в конце периода;
точка;
to put a period (to smth.) поставить точку;
положить конец (чему-л.) qualifying ~ испытательный срок quiet ~ период регистрации займа в Комиссии по ценным бумагам и биржам в США recession ~ период спада redemption ~ период возвращения долга redemption ~ период выкупа redemption ~ период погашения reference ~ базовый период reference ~ отчетный период relevant ~ соответствующий период remaining ~ оставшийся срок renewal ~ период восстановления repayment ~ срок выплаты repayment ~ срок погашения reporting ~ отчетный период rollover ~ период очередной фиксации плавающей ставки по кредиту run-in ~ период обкатки run-in ~ период приработки rush ~ период наибольшей нагрузки settlement ~ платежный период settling ~ расчетный период shakedown ~ вчт. период освоения shipping ~ навигационный период slack ~ период затишья slack ~ спад в промышленности specified ~ установленный период steady ~ период стабильности subscription ~ период подписки tax ~ период налогообложения taxation ~ период налогообложения transition ~ переходный период transition: ~ attr. переходный;
transition period переходный период;
transition curve мат. переходная кривая;
transition stage переходная стадия transitional ~ переходный период transitional ~ промежуточный период trial ~ испытательный срок trial ~ срок испытания trial: ~ attr. пробный, испытательный;
trial period испытательный срок unemployment ~ период безработицы useful life ~ период нормальной эксплуатации validity ~ срок юридического действия waiting ~ время ожидания waiting ~ период ожидания( до наступления права на пособие и т. д.) waiting ~ период отсрочки ответственности страховщика waiting ~ срок ожидания weak ~ период затишья weak ~ спад производства winding up ~ ликвидационный период

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > period
20 year

jə: сущ.
1) год to spend a year somewhere ≈ провести год где-л. every year ≈ каждый год last year ≈ в прошлом году next year ≈ в следующем году this year ≈ в этом году the coming year ≈ в наступающем году the current year ≈ в текущем году the past year ≈ в прошедшем году in future years ≈ в будущем up to last year ≈ до прошлого года By the year 2000, the population in many countries will double. ≈ К 2000 году население во многих странах удвоится. They have not been here for/in years. ≈ Их здесь не было очень долго. He died in the year of the great flood. ≈ Он умер в год большого наводнения. She had three years of college. ≈ Она проучилась три года в колледже. year in year out from year to year year by year year after year years ago years and years ago year of grace for a year academic year school year bad year lean year banner year good year peak year record year calendar year election year fiscal year golden years happy year jubilee year leap year light year lunar year memorable year presidential year profitable year sabbatical year sidereal year solar year
2) мн. возраст, годы children of tender years ≈ дети в младенческом возрасте She is five years old. ≈ Ей пять лет. год - this * в этом году - academic /school/ * учебный год - business * хозяйственный год - fiscal /financial/ * бюджетный /финансовый/ год - calendar /legal, civil, artificial/ * календарный год - basal /base, reference/ * (экономика) базисный год - current * текущий год - astronomical /natural, solar, tropical, equinoctial/ * (астрономический) тропический год - leap * високосный год - lunar * лунный год - siderial * сидерический /звездный/ год - Sabbatic( - al) * каждый седьмой год, когда пашня и виноградники остаются под паром( в древнем и современном Израиле) ;
(творческий) отпуск на год или полгода( предоставляется раз в семь лет преподавателю колледжа или университета для учебы и т. п.) - * under review отчетный год - twenty *s ago двадцать лет назад - once a * раз в год - next * в следующем году - this day next * ровно через год - in the * 1866 в 1866 году - in the * of grace /of our Lord/ 1564 в 1564 году от рождества Христова - in this * of grace (ироничное) в наши дни, в наш век - in a *'s time через год - we shall return one * from today мы вернемся (ровно) через год - the * round круглый год - * in (and) out из года в год - from * to *, * by *, * after * каждый год;
с каждым годом;
год от году - (a) * and (a) day (юридическое) (полный) год - a three * period трехлетний период /срок/ - first * student первокурсник - Happy New Y.! с Новым годом! - to see the old * out, the new * in проводить старый и встретить Новый год pl возраст, годы - he is old for his *s он выглядит старо (для своих лет) - a man in /of/ *s пожилой человек, человек в годах - to grow /to be getting on, to advance/ in *s стареть - to die full of *s умереть в расцвете лет - he is twenty *s old ему двадцать лет - she is in her twentieth * ей (идет) двадцатый год - I hope to live to your *s я надеюсь дожить до ваших лет длительный период времени - *s ago очень давно - in *s to come в будущем - I haven't seen him for /in/ *s я не видел его целую вечность > in /from, since/ the * dot /one/ в незапамятные времена;
при царе Горохе > I've had this coat since the * dot я уже столько лет таскаю это пальто accounting ~ отчетный год accounting ~ финансовый год amount carried forward to next ~ сумма, перенесенная на следующий год assessment ~ год налогообложения balance from the previous ~ сальдо с предыдущего года banking ~ отчетный год банка base ~ базисный год basis ~ базисный год budget ~ бюджетный год budgetary ~ бюджетный год business ~ бюджетный год business ~ отчетный год business ~ хозяйственный год calendar ~ календарный год convention ~ пат. конвенционный год corporation tax ~ налоговый год корпорации current ~ текущий год end ~ последний год every other ~ через год every second ~ каждый второй год financial tax ~ финансовый год в системе налогообложения following ~ следующий год from ~ to ~, ~ by ~, ~ after ~ с каждым годом;
каждый год;
год от году good ~ благоприятный год grain ~ сельскохозяйственный год half ~ полгода new ~ Новый год;
Happy New Year! с Новым годом! ~ pl возраст, годы;
he looks young for his years он молодо выглядит для своих лет;
in years пожилой in the ~ of grace (или of our Lord) 1975 в 1975 году от рождества Христова ~ pl возраст, годы;
he looks young for his years он молодо выглядит для своих лет;
in years пожилой income tax ~ год, за который взимается подоходный налог insurance ~ год страхования legal ~ юридический год maturity ~ год, когда наступает срок платежа new ~ новогодний;
new year party встреча Нового года new ~ Новый год;
Happy New Year! с Новым годом! new ~ новогодний;
new year party встреча Нового года noncalendar financial ~ некалендарный финансовый год operating ~ операционный год parliamentary ~ парламентский год past ~ прошлый год patent ~ год выдачи патента preceding financial ~ предыдущий финансовый год preceding ~ предыдущий год previous ~ предшествующий год previous ~ предыдущий год probationary ~ испытательный год probationary ~ испытательный срок продолжительностью один год recession ~ кризисный год reporting ~ отчетный год reversion ~ год возврата salary ~ расчетный год по заработной плате sales ~ год продажи school ~ учебный год short business ~ короткий финансовый год short business ~ короткий хозяйственный год short fiscal ~ короткий финансовый год shortfall ~ год спада производства subsequent ~ последующий год tax ~ учетный год налогообложения taxation ~ учетный год налогоообложения trading ~ операционный год trading ~ хозяйственный год transitional fiscal ~ финансовый год переходного периода wage ~ год начисления заработной платы work ~ производственный год work ~ хозяйственный год from ~ to ~, ~ by ~, ~ after ~ с каждым годом;
каждый год;
год от году ~ год;
year by year каждый год;
year in year out из года в год ~ by ~ каждый год from ~ to ~, ~ by ~, ~ after ~ с каждым годом;
каждый год;
год от году ~ год;
year by year каждый год;
year in year out из года в год ~ of acceptance год акцептования ~ of acquisition год приобретения ~ of appropriation год ассигнования ~ of appropriation год приобретения ~ of assessment год обложения налогом ~ of assessment год оценки недвижимого имущества ~ of crisis кризисный год ~ of death год смерти ~ of deduction год предоставления налоговой скидки ~ of deduction год удержания ~ of delivery год поставки ~ of deposit год депонирования ~ of disbursement год выплаты ~ of foundation год основания ~ of grace год нашей эры years (and years) ago очень давно, целую вечность;
the year of grace год нашей эры ~ of improvements год мелиорации ~ of improvements год модернизации ~ of income год получения дохода ~ of operation год сделки ~ of operation год финансовой операции ~ of payment год платежа ~ of provision год снабжения ~ of publication год публикации ~ of purchase год покупки ~ of rebuilding год реконструкции ~ of recession год спада ~ of sale год продажи ~ of sale год реализации ~ of termination год истечения срока ~ of termination срок прекращения действия ~ on ~ в годовом исчислении ~ to date на данный год ~ to the first instant год первоначального намерения years (and years) ago очень давно, целую вечность;
the year of grace год нашей эры

Большой англо-русский и русско-английский словарь > year

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